Aspects of Contract and Negligence for Business Essay - 9

Aspects of Contract and Negligence for Business - Essay Example Essential aspects of a valid contract include an agreement that has to be composed of the element of offer and acceptance. For there to be an agreement there must be two parties involved, the party that makes the offer is known as the offeror while the party to whom the offer is made is known as the offeree. The two parties must come to a consensus on the same thing. Intention to create legal relationship on the part of the parties to the agreement is essential in order to create a legally binding relationship.The consent between the parties to enter in an agreement has to be free and genuine and not forced or entered by mistake or misrepresentation. If in any case the consent is not freely entered,the resultant contract is not valid. The parties entering into a contract should be qualified to enter a contract.The qualification to enter into a contract include being of the right age, sound mind and not disqualified by any law of which the party may be subject. Vicarious liability entails circumstances where the principal is held liable due to the misconduct of his agent (Kraakman 670). The agent in this case can either be an employee in the course of employment, a police officer in charge of a police post, or a partner of a firm in the ordinary course of business. Liability in contracts can only happen if a tort is committed. In this case, the one who commits the tort is an employee while the employee was acting under employment when the tort was committed. In case of employment, employers can only be held liable for torts committed by their employees and not independent contractors. The employer In the case of Limpus v London General Omnibus Co (1862) I H&C 526, it was held liable for bus drivers racing, despite prohibition, causing a collision (Brennan 112). The assumption of vicarious liability is that principals have greater capability

Racial Stereotypes Essay Example for Free

Racial Stereotypes Essay Theoretically, the present work examined the role of personal endorsement of cultural stereotypes. Devine (1989) proposed that because of the repeated and virtually unavoidable exposure to pervasive cultural stereotypes, both high and low prejudiced individuals will automatically activate these representations when they are presented with representations of those groups regardless of their personal level of endorsement of these stereotypes (i. e. , personal stereotypes). Recently, Lepore and Brown (1997) highlighted an important distinction between stereotype priming and category priming. Stereotype priming involves cueing stereotypic characteristics (e. g. , lazy) directly, with or without the category label (e. g. , Black). Categorization priming occurs when only the category (e. g. , Black) is cued in isolation of any stereotypic characteristics. Lepore and Brown noted that Devines (1989, Study 2) research involved both stereotypic priming and category priming simultaneously, and they observed, Many primes had clear negative connotations that could have directly cued hostility (p. 276). The absence of differences in the responses of high and low prejudiced participants in the Devine study may thus have occurred because of the direct activation of semantic associations involved in stereotype priming rather than because of a close association between the category alone and the stereotype. Lepore and Brown (1997) further argued that high-and low-prejudice peoples representations of the social group may not differ in terms of content (at least for stereotype knowledge) but stronger links may have developed for different characteristics (p. 277). Lepore and Brown reasoned that, as a consequence of this differential strength of associative links with the category, high and low prejudiced people would show divergent automatic stereotype activation as a function of category priming. Consistent with their hypothesis, using Devines (1989, Study 2) priming and subsequent impression formation procedure, Lepore and Brown found that when only the category was primed, high prejudiced participants showed evidence of automatic negative stereotype activation, whereas low prejudiced participants did not (and, in fact, tended to show activation of positive associates). When stereotype priming was involved, however, both high and low prejudiced participants demonstrated comparable levels of stereotype activation. The present research further investigated this theoretical issue by directly examining the relation between personal endorsement of cultural stereotypes (shared beliefs about the characteristics possessed by members of a social group) and the activation of these stereotypes within a category priming paradigm. Because participants were given the time and opportunity to ascribe stereotypic traits deliberately to the particular categories, this process is considered to be controlled. Thus, the degree of the participants endorsement of the cultural stereotypes was expected to vary as a function of prejudice (Devine, 1989; Esses et al. , 1993; Lepore Brown, 1997). Participants activation of cultural stereotypes, alternatively, was assessed with a word pronunciation task. Specifically, participants, who were classified as high or low in prejudice, were presented with a category prime (Black, White, or CCC [a neutral baseline]) followed by a positive or negative Black stereotypic target word or nonstereotypic target word. Their task was simply to pronounce the target word. Response latency was the dependent measure. A number of studies have revealed that this procedure may produce a particularly sensitive measure of automatic processing because the paradigm does not foster task-specific strategies that can obscure the effects of automaticity (Balota Chumbly, 1984; Balota Lorch, 1986; Bargh, Chaiken, Raymond, Hymes, 1996; Joordens Besner, 1992; Ratcliff McKoon, 1988). Conditions for automatic and controlled processing were induced in this paradigm by varying the length of time between the onset of the presentation of the prime and the presentation of the target word. Under short SOAs (stimulus onset asynchronies) (300 ms), responses were assumed to be automatic because the stimuli were presented too briefly for participants to engage, focus, and commit attention intentionally to their responses (Neely, 1977, 1991). Long SOAs (2,000 ms) were assumed to permit more controlled processes because participants had sufficient time to manipulate their responses strategically. In the present study, the repeated presentation of racial category primes and stereotypic traits makes the racial focus of the task salient, which normally produces motivations to respond in socially desirable, unbiased ways (Dovidio Fazio, 1992), even in simple response latency tasks (Messick Mackie, 1989).

How Charles Dickens’ Life Influenced Oliver Twist Essay -- essays pape

How Charles Dickens’ Life Influenced Oliver Twist â€Å"The range of his creative activity is, in the first place, limited to the world of his youth† (Cecil 169). This quote explains many people. What has previously happened to a person has a tremendous impact on them. It can affect their decisions, emotions, and life. The life of a person can sometimes be seen quite easily through what they do. Artists often reveal what their life has been like through the works that they create. The same can be said about writers. Events in authors past often show up in his works. The above quote is, in fact, made in regard to Charles Dickens. Dickens had several real life experiences of poverty and abandonment in his life that influenced his work, Oliver Twist. The times of poverty and abandonment in Charles Dickens’ life instilled a political belief in Dickens’ mind against the new poor laws of Great Britain. Dickens’ felt the new poor laws victimized the poor, failed to give the poor a voice, and were in need of change. These points are shown in Oliver Twist through the characters, scenes, and narration Dickens’ uses throughout the book. Dickens lived a life full of events that would later influence his novels. Dickens grew up during a time of change for Great Britain. By the time he was born in 1812, the Industrial Revolution was in full force. Dickens grew up as a normal middle-class child in Portsmouth, Great Britain. It was around the age of twelve that his life took a drastic turn. Dickens was still a child when his father was imprisoned for debt. Families, at this time, lived with the father in prison. Charles did not live in prison, though. Instead, he was sent to live alone and become a laborer at Warren’s Blacking Facto... ...r Twist† The Immortal Dickens. London, 1925. 63-87. Rpt in Oliver Twist. Ed. Fred Kaplan. New York: Norton & Company, 1993. Skim Greene, Graham. â€Å"The Young Dickens.† Collected Essays. 1969. Rpt. in Nineteenth Century Literary Criticism, Vol. 3. Ed. Laurie L. Harris. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1983. Pg. 176. MacKenzie, Jeanne. Dickens, A Life. USA: British Library Cataloguing in Publication, 1979. Skim. Murray, Brian. Charles Dickens. New York: Continuum, 1994. Skim Paroissien, David. Letter to Noah Laible, 15 Feb 2000. Taine, Hippolyte A. History of English Literature, Vol 4. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1965. Pg. 117-163. Wall, Stephan. â€Å"The Letters of Charles Dickens, 1856-1858.† Essays in Criticism 47.1 (1997): 78-87. Wills, Garry. â€Å"Love in the lower depths.† The New York Review of Books 26 Oct 1989: 60-68.

Boeing 700 :: Essays Papers

Boeing 700 The Boeing 700’s are very capable of handling duties in the commercial and military world. The Boeing 700’s are capable of handling many tasks in the commercial and military world. With the introduction of the 707 in the late fifties to the most recent 777 in the early nineties the, 700’s have dominated the commercial world for five decades. They are a line of aircraft that are capable of handling many roles from basic civilian transport to various military needs. They are the people movers of the 20th century. Each with a large carrying capacity combined with the range of a jet aircraft they have moved more people longer distances than what was once thought possible. Boeing has truly produced some of the greatest aircraft in history. The various duties that the 700’s perform are quite extraordinary. It all started in the fifties. There was a growing demand for a commercial airliner that could move a greater number of people farther and faster. The age of the jet engine still had not reached to civilian transportation. There was still a fear of the jet because of lack of reliability, but with the advancement of technology the jet engine now had become more even reliable than the piston engine. The need for a jet engine powered plane was growing. Airlines still were looking for a plane that could cross the Atlantic Ocean without a refueling stop. The Lockheed Super Connies, a piston powered plane, were able to cross the Atlantic Ocean with out stopping on the eastbound leg, but they had to stop in Gander, Newfoundland to refuel on the westbound leg. The airlines desired a plane that could easily travel the Atlantic with out a stop. The piston engine just wasn’t going to do it, the jet engine was the answer to the question. Boeing realized this and moved to look for a design for a jet powered plane. At first Boeing was looking to modify existing aircraft with jet engines to perform the tasks. They quickly realized that they needed a whole new aircraft. The Boeing 707 was born. The first Boeing 707 was delivered to Pan America airlines in May of 1958 (Bauer, 218). Sales started out slow in fact the 707 almost died many times in it’s first couple years of existence.

Grown up woman Essay

Sheila is disappointed with her lover (Gerald) she angry with her parents, because they seem more anxious to impress the inspector with their social position then to look deep into their own hearts â€Å"and can’t you see both of you, you’re making it worse†. She’s irritated at the blindness of those who can not see what she has come to realize. Gerald’s confessions are followed by what is revealed about Mrs. Birling heartless refusal to help Eva Smith. Sheila’s reaction is very very important. Her own feelings of guilt, her changed feelings towards Gerald, her irritation with her parents must be shown. AT the same time the audience must see how she reacts to the inspector as someone who is changing their lives of many in that room. Towards the end of act 2 tensions builds up when the inspectors’ investigation and Mrs. Birlings reply begin to be pointing towards Eric having had a connection with Eva. Sheila tries desperately to stop her mother making a bigger fool of herself â€Å"mother- I begged you and begged you to stop† she says at the end. It is at this moment that Eric appears the panic and distress and helplessness must be shown in your face. In act 3 events move towards the climax and Sheila is a key figure in the action even she may not be one stage all of the time. The inspectors questioning have began to draw out each character an admission of responsibility for what happened to Eva Smith though not all of them feel guilt in the way in which Sheila and later Eric come to see. What comes to light about Eric is deeply upsetting to Birling and his wife. He drinks heavily he’s the father of Eva’s child, he has stolen money from his father. The respectable outside of the Birling family is seen to be full off hypocrisies and dishonesty. Both Birling and Mrs. Birling are rattled. â€Å"But each of you helped to kill her. Remember that. Never forget that.† Birlings reaction too the disclosures about Eric is typical â€Å"I’ve got to cover up this up as soon as I can†. By fouls means he must prevent the scandal from getting known. He even begins to appeal to the inspector â€Å"look inspector- I’d give thousands yes thousands†. He feels no guilt but he only wants to use his money to hide the truth from getting known. The inspector leaves having made one final speech about â€Å"fire and blood and anguish† that will follow if people do not realize that â€Å"we are responsible for each other†. It is one of the most important dramatic scenes in the play. Sheila and Eric are completely affected by what the inspector has said. The senior Birlings feel no guilt they don’t think they have done anything wrong â€Å"it turned out unfortunately, that’s all†. There is no change of heart. When Sheila repeats the fathers last words â€Å"that’s all† she says it scornfully because she realizes her parents will not change. AT this stage you should show through your facial expression and the way in which you speak that your meeting with the inspector has been almost a religious experience. Later on when the inspector proved to be a hoax the others relax but not Sheila or Eric. To Sheila the inspector is a supernatural being â€Å"there was something curious about him. He never seemed to be an ordinary police inspector†. It is in relation to this that the audience must judge the reactions of the senior Birlings and Gerald when they learn that there is no inspector Goole . To you that is irrelevant because he has already changed your life and Eric’s also. He is more then a real inspector. When Birling says â€Å"it makes all the difference† your reaction must be one of bitterness and disbelief as you say â€Å"I suppose we’re all nice people now†. You can not believe that their moral sense can be so distorted. There are discussions later about the photographs of Eva Smith followed by news at the end of a woman who is indeed dead. This is dramatic but the real climax is when it becomes obvious to the audience that the inspector’s message about our responsibility for others that â€Å"we don’t live alone† has been forcefully made. It will remain true regardless of whether the inspector was real and whether there ever was an Eva Smith. It is important for you too show the change that takes place in Sheila Birling through the reactions to the inspectors question your disgraced about the selfishness of your parents and the part you also played. You must show the entire change from you being a naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve girl turning into a grown up woman.  Priestly passes a great moral message in this story and enforces several times. We are all equal and we do not live alone we must look out for each other regardless of social class.

Space Law Essay Example

Space Law Essay Example Space Law Essay Space Law Essay Jr. , â€Å"China up there. (On the Right)†, National Review, March 5, 2007 Colonna, Thomas E. Thomas, Desencia E. â€Å"Be Careful Saving the World From Near-Earth-Orbit Objects: You May Be Breaking the Law. † Mercury, Vol. 8 Issue 5, September/October 1999 Curtis, Anthony R. PH. D. , â€Å"Covering Space From Earth to the Edge of the Universe†, Space Today Online, www. spacetoday. org Dhanapala, Jayantha. â€Å"The Outer Space Treaty at Thirty-Five. † United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) http://disarmament2. un. org/speech/14oct2002. htm Diederiks-Verschoor, I. H. Philepina, â€Å"An Introduction to Space Law†, Kluwer Law International, 1999 Graham, Thomas â€Å"International Law and the Military Uses of Space† Disarmament Diplomacy, Issue No. 63, March/April 2002 Krepon, Michael, Lost in Space: The Misguided Drive Toward Antisatellite Weapons†, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 80, No. 3, May/June 2001 Meredith, Pamela, The Legality of A High-Technology Missile Defense System: The ABM and Outer Space Treaties, The American Journal of International Law, April 1984 Oberg, James, â€Å"The Heavens at War†, New Scientist, Issue No. 2293, June 3, 2001 Taggart, Stewart , â€Å"Australians Take Mir Deorbit Risks in Stride†, Space. com, March 20 ,2001 space. com/news/spacestation/esperance_mir_010320. html â€Å"Key Documents in the History of Space Policy. † National Aeronautics and Space Administration http://history. nasa. gov/spdocs. html â€Å"Space, Aviation, and Admiralty Law. † Worldwide Legal Directories hg. org/transp. html UNOOSA United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs unoosa. org/oosa/index. html Britannica Online Encyclopedia, britannica. com/bps/home

Flow Control and Data Compression Essays

Flow Control and Data Compression Essays Flow Control and Data Compression Essay Flow Control and Data Compression Essay Firstly flow control shall be looked at and the methods it undergoes when being implemented. Flow control is an efficient way of handling data when its to be sent to an external entity. For example this maybe the likes of a printer, further a modem may be the entity. All information that is to be sent to the entities must have a place to be stored. This is within the built in buffer, when the memory gets to full flow control is implemented and the jobs again can be stored. This ensures a faster speed of processing jobs whether they be print jobs or e-mails and helps maintain stability.Flow ControlAn example of flow control to be used will be the sending of information to a printer. A printer will contain what is known as a buffer. A buffer is there to aid the printer when to many jobs are sent. For example the user send 4 jobs to the printer these are then all queued in the buffer. This limit cannot be exceeded and if tried the printer will communicate with the computer and will say that it cannot receive any more information at the current time. It does this by saying x-off. When the list has been completed and printed all documents from the buffer the printer will say x-on and this resumes printing the 5th job that was unable to fit into the buffer.Another example of above would be the sending of an e-mail through the modem. If multiple e-mails are to be sent at once then they will be stored within the buffer. When the buffer is full and another job is sent the modem will say to the computer not to send any more. It does this by using CTS clear to send Once all jobs are finished from the modem it can carry out the jobs that were not able to fit into the buffer originally. It does this by saying RTS ready to sendData CompressionIntroductionThere are a few forms of data compression and they will be explained in a little more detail throughout. Data compression plays a big part in then world today. Compression is a key factor to system speeds and size and is pre dominantly used within communications; this is to ensure fewer bits are sent (therefore less bandwidth is used). When this has been accomplished faster communication speeds can be achieved. There are many forms of data compression however only a few have been standardised.Also a few negatives may be derived from data compression. When data has been compressed and sent over the network it is in a reduced form. This saves speed as previously said. The problem with this is the decompression methodology at the other end. If this algorithm/process is not very efficient then the overall speed may not decrease that significantly at all.Run Length EncodingIt is important to compress data to make file sizes smaller and increase speed times. When sending faxes users wish to send the information at the quickest speeds possible and this may only be done by the use of compression. For example if a page was made of black and white dots and was to be sent, instead of writing W W W W W W W W B B B W to represent white dots we may write 8W, this represents 8 white dots. There are also three black dots present and this would then be written as follows, 8W3B1W Overall this would compress a bigger file size immensely. It is called R.L.E run length encoding.White Space CompressionAnother example of data compression would be when uploading a web page using html coding. As html coding will contain masses of white on the page, for example spaces and so fourth, further there is a mass of unneeded tags. This can be compressed to make the file size smaller.Error Detection and CorrectionIntroductionError detection and correction is used to validate data when it is sent. There are many channels and places where errors in data can occur and there are forms of detection to help avoid this. The methods used shall be described below.When data is sent over the internet in the form of an instant message for example it will be sent (each character) in ASCII code. ASCII code is made of a 7 bit bi nary number and represents each character thats found on the keyboard. When a message is sent an eight bit is put at the beginning of the ASCII code, this is called a parity bit, and helps in error detection. There are many types of things that can cause errors and the parity bit helps fight this.Even parity: When the 7bit binary number is sent (1011000) we need to add parity. This would be in the form of a one; the number to be sent would then be 11011000. When this number is sent the recipient should be aware that the form being sent is an even parity. When received, the computer will be well aware if an error has occurred as the ASCII code will contain an odd number of 1s. This is the same with the Odd Parity Check. However with the odd parity check its essential to maintain an odd number of 1s.This process is simple and is not a sure way to detect errors. For example if a burst of errors were to occur, the ASCII code would turn into a even or odd respectively again, as was sent in the first place, so this is a floor in the check, further it only has a 50:50 chance of detecting burst errors.Error CorrectionError correction is a simple process. When sending information such as text, for example mother and donkey, there are a number of ways in which the computer can correct the errors that have occurred.WordCharacter DifferenceMother DonkeyCommentLikely MatchDonkey40Perfect Match to donkey but 4 to motherDonkeyHotter24Closer to mother than donkeyMotherMother04Perfect match to mother and maximum difference to donkeyMotherMither15Closer to mother than donkeyMotherMonkey31Closer to donkey than motherDonkeyCables55As close to mother as donkey. Cannot determine correct message.The process is simple. The programme will try to match the exact phrase to a list of comparisons and will then define what fits into the original word the best. This will work on the process of elimination and when complete can define what the exact word should be.

The Scrum Methodology †Current Issues in Information Systems Essay

The Scrum Methodology – Current Issues in Information Systems Essay Free Online Research Papers The Scrum Methodology Current Issues in Information Systems Essay Scrum is a project management technique used primarily in software development. Scrum adopts its name from a rugby term where players huddle together to move the ball forward up the field while pushing against the other team in the same formation. This comparison is quite natural because the scrum style of management is very team centric as apposed to more traditional forms of management that rely on continuous approval and directions from a single team lead. Managers who engage a team with this type of project must be very hands off. This is to allow the team to delegate pieces of the projects internally as well as manage all other areas of the project as a single unit. Although Scrum is termed an agile method it differs in that agile typically refers to a programming methodology and not a management style. For example, XP, Extreme Programming is a good example of a typical agile method. Scrum is more a management style then it is a programming methodology because Scrum is less concerned with how the tasks get accomplished as it is with when the tasks get accomplished. This moves the spotlight more towards organization and the division of work to meet deadlines and away from other concerns like the language used for the project. Thus getting away from how the programmer chooses to meet that deadline and more on how the team accomplishes its own goal. Scrum teams typically consist of 7-8 members all with varying skills depending on the project. The theory behind Scrum suggests that because the team is small and does not require immediate management their production levels will elevate because they will feel more ownership to the product. This type of style also allows for those individuals who are more self motivated to work on areas of a project that are not considered their forte. This further supports the idea that a happy, contributing worker will generate more production then one who is simply highly paid. In an article by Robert L. Read entitled How to be a Programmer he argues that â€Å"It is a wonderful and surprising fact that programmers are highly motivated by the desire to create artifacts that are beautiful, useful, or nifty.† Read is touching on an ongoing discussion found in many programming forums and that is whether or not programming is a science or an art. If one leans more toward the art aspect it easy to see why Scrum would probably work best for that individual. The work loads in scrum are broken into time frames called Sprints. Sprints are typically allocated in one month periods. Sprints focus on a single deliverable thus making progress easy to see and give the client a regular monthly update. Within the Sprint the team has regular and meaningful project updates with one another on a daily basis. These meetings are also called Scrums because they are at the core of this style. During this meeting it is very important that a clear understanding of progress is given for management review but also it is equally important for the team to escalate any issues that require management’s intervention. Because the Sprint is only one month there is no time for getting lost in bureaucratic processes or red tape. In so many ways this would just defeat the entire purpose of the Scrum style of management. Scrum depends on reliable and self motivated team members with excellent communication skills. Managers are in place as enablers to problems and not as micromanagers. This concept is quite foreign to many teams that are new to this methodology and surely has caused many blank stares at initial meetings. However, Scrum is proving to be an excellent tool for motivating and maintaining employee moral. Research Papers on The Scrum Methodology - Current Issues in Information Systems EssayThe Project Managment Office SystemResearch Process Part OneThe Hockey GameBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfOpen Architechture a white paperIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductThree Concepts of PsychodynamicDefinition of Export QuotasThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use

FREECLAIM Solicitors Marketing Mix Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

FREECLAIM Solicitors Marketing Mix - Essay Example The video will rank high if more and more visitors view the video produced by the company. The links of the video will be spread all over the internet; a landing page link will be created which will be published with several articles. These articles will discuss the services that the company provides and these articles will even inform the consumers about the affiliations of the company. These articles will even inform potential clients about the various benefits that the company is offering to its clients and how well the company has performed. A landing page link will be posted within these articles so the people who want to view the video can land on the organization’s webpage and can view the video from the webpage and learn about the company. Two different sets of videos will be created for the company and these two videos will be posted on the main webpage of the company. These videos will be used to promote the activities and the services that will be provided by the organization. These videos will talk about the qualified associates of the organization who can help the clients in a different manner. These videos will even talk about the benefits that the consumers can attain if the purchase services from the organization. This video will highlight various legal issues experienced by consumers and how FREE CLAIM solicitors can help them resolve these legal issues. Viewers of the videos will not have to pay a dime to watch these videos and the information provided through these videos will be completely free of cost. These videos will even talk about the charges that clients will be paying for obtaining services from the organization. More details on the charges that will be levied on customers for the services provided will be detailed in the charges section of the website. No charges will be obtained for advice  sessions, advice will be provided free of cost through the website and through the telephone link provided by the company. The company will even call the client itself if the client uses the â€Å"request a callback† option. Calculations for the amount of compensation for the injured client can be calculated through the website and no charges will be obtained for this inquiry.

Wetlands of Arkansas Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Wetlands of Arkansas - Research Paper Example State parks, location of the wetlands in the state, and conservation plans for the wetlands would also be discussed. The official website for state parks in Arkansas reveals a total of 52 which offer diverse recreational and outdoor facilities. From among those mentioned are: Cane Creek, Crater of Diamonds, Daisy, Devil’s Den, Jacksonport, Lake Charles, Lake Fort Smith, Mount Magazine, Ozark Folk Center, Petit Jean, Village Creak, White Oak Lake, and a host of other state parks (Arkansas State Parks, 2007). The wetlands in Arkansas are classified using the hydrogeomorphic (HGM) approach. This approach is described in detail, to wit: â€Å"is a procedure for assessing the capacity of an ecosystem to perform functions. It is designed to assess wetland and aquatic ecosystems, which are normally characterized in terms of their structural components and the processes that link these components. Structural components of the ecosystem and the surrounding landscape, such as plants, soils, hydrology, and animals, interact with a variety of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Understanding the interactions of the structural components of the ecosystem with surrounding landscape features is the basis for assessing ecosystem functions, and it is the foundation of the HGM Approach† (Brinson, 1995). Using the HGM Approach, the wetlands in Arkansas have five basis classes: depression, flats, fringe, slope and riverine. According to the Classification and Characterization of Wetlands of Arkansas (n.d., 5) â€Å"depressional wetlands occur in topographic low points where water accumulates and remains for extended periods†. There are three subclasses and seven community types under this classification. The discourse described slopes as occurring on â€Å"sloping land surfaces, where ground water discharge or shallow subsurface flow creates saturated conditions† (Classification,

Project Implementation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Project Implementation - Assignment Example This research aims at curbing misappropriation of digital data within the customer premises. This refers to the use of data available within a premise for other purposes than the intended one. This includes officers taking away data from the company server for personal use. The need for a company to protect its data arises as results of numerous cases of misappropriation go on the rise. The main goal of this project remains to secure the data which its customers require secured from access. This shall be achieved through the installation of programs which allow only a limited access. The other goal of the project would be defining and securing the information accessed from the institutions’ infrastructure. The project shall also define the points at which certain data can be accessed. Limitation of access points will translate to being able to monitor access to any classified information. Access control shall also be another of the main goals of this project. This shall be aim ed at exerting control over what people can access while at the place of work. Creation of access control systems shall be essential for the success of the project. Basically, the scope of this project lies in securing information, which can be, accessed from company premises. This being classified information owned by the company and harmful information from other places outside the company. A need arises for the project to define personal and general information. Personal data can be defined as information relating to an identifiable subject. This information may relate to numerous aspects of the subject. This is information which one can be able to link or associate with another person. In the case of Soul’s clients, this information relates to student details, results and other personal records of students. This project aims at reducing cases of information

Results of the Crusades Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Results of the Crusades - Essay Example However, the main motivation behind the crusade of Muslims was the urge to spread their religion all over the world. This Muslim crusade started even before the crusade of Christianity in Europe. For instance, many Muslim clerics, scholars and activists were indulged in the crusade of Islamic group. The Christianity crusade was a failure and it weakened the position of Pope as a religious leader. The crusade degraded the strength of feudal nobility and decreased the power of kings of Europe. The Byzantine Empire was weakened by the fall of Constantinople and many knights got killed in the crusade. However in the crusade, the Chrisitans got advantages from the trade side. Due to crusade Europeans could avail themselves of cloth, spices and fruits from South Asian countries. This aspect was a benefit to both Muslim and Christians. According to the historical records, Islamic and Christian crusade fall on equal stands in regard to their benefit. However Islamic crusade success was very high compared to Christianity crusade because the war worn out empires of Byzantines and Persia was in power vaccum and Islam won these regions with less

Identifying Potential Risk, Response, and Recovery Assignment

Identifying Potential Risk, Response, and Recovery - Assignment Example They are subject to a multiple number of insecurities that could prove to be very disastrous for the business to which the system belongs should it succumb to a threat. Businesses that rely on information systems have an obligation to maintain and keep it secure. As the Information Security Engineer for a videogame development company, it is compulsory that I adopt a vigilant approach to uphold my company’s information security (Godbole, 2009). Attacks, threats and vulnerabilities to the organization Hacking The organization is vulnerable to hacking. Hacking is a criminal act whereby unauthorized people with massive computer knowledge decide to illegally access the personal information on another’s information system, mostly to use for malicious acts that will harm the system’s owner. As identified, the organization’s system is not secure enough to protect itself from hackers. Should this threat not be handled the organization is at a risk of losing its mo st valuable information to anyone who does not have the business’ best interests at heart. Such information in the wrong hands could lead to the downfall of the organization without fail. Obsolescence The organization’s information system is outdated. This is a threat that needs to be addressed. In a business as competitive as the videogames one cannot afford to have information systems that are out-of-date. ... This means that the systems fail to work somehow due to various reasons. I have made an observation that once the systems crash all the information that was contained in it is lost and the organization has to commence from scratch. It does not have to happen this way at all. This is a problem that must be dealt with so as to save time. If all activities in an organization will be stopped just because one system crashed then the business will lag behind (Godbole, 2009). Poor maintenance by staff The organization’s staff are not using the information systems a required. This could be out of ignorance or simply negligence. I recently observed one staff member pour water on a computer’s keyboard. This is an outrageous show of poor maintenance. The systems need to be taken care of on the outside in order to protect the information they carry inside. Lack of maintenance could lead to a double tragedy, that is, irreparable damage to the computer systems and in turn loss of the data they hold. Theft There has been theft of information systems in the recent past o the organization. This is an attack that cannot be allowed to stand as it should be hazardous to the life of the firm. The organization should find out the source behind these threats and tackle it with immediate effect (Godbole, 2009). Strategies and controls to deal with the risks 1) Hacking Hacking can be dealt with using the strategy of risk avoidance. This means ensuring that it doesn’t occur at all. For this strategy to be enforced the organization needs to apply new methods of securing the information systems further. For instance, by creating stronger passwords for files. This will make it harder for a hacker to access whatever is

Results of the Crusades Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Results of the Crusades - Essay Example However, the main motivation behind the crusade of Muslims was the urge to spread their religion all over the world. This Muslim crusade started even before the crusade of Christianity in Europe. For instance, many Muslim clerics, scholars and activists were indulged in the crusade of Islamic group. The Christianity crusade was a failure and it weakened the position of Pope as a religious leader. The crusade degraded the strength of feudal nobility and decreased the power of kings of Europe. The Byzantine Empire was weakened by the fall of Constantinople and many knights got killed in the crusade. However in the crusade, the Chrisitans got advantages from the trade side. Due to crusade Europeans could avail themselves of cloth, spices and fruits from South Asian countries. This aspect was a benefit to both Muslim and Christians. According to the historical records, Islamic and Christian crusade fall on equal stands in regard to their benefit. However Islamic crusade success was very high compared to Christianity crusade because the war worn out empires of Byzantines and Persia was in power vaccum and Islam won these regions with less

Phenomenon (McDonalds) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Phenomenon (McDonalds) - Essay Example It is after investigation that he unveiled how lucrative the entity was but took time joining them Ray After investigating while still dealing with the brothers, he found out the entity had the potential of becoming prominent in the region judging from Americans’ attitudes towards eat out joints. Hence, advised them to expand the entity’s presence but they did not know how to do that where he intervened as their agent and establishing first shop in Chicago (1955) (Johansen 82). After six years, Ray managed to buy this entity from the brothers, hence being able to have adequate and complete control meant to keep it in the best track he deemed would ensure success. Hence, during then being extremely strict in managing his array of restaurants together with ensuring the entity fully embraced cleanliness, quality as well as excellence in service, which comprises its key aspects to date. Besides strict operations, his intention was to spearhead numerous establishments not only in US but also globally but using similar standards. According to Johansen (82), the entity by 2012 had approximately 14,000 units in US and over 33,000 globally. This is despite its owner before and after acquisition then experiencing serious health drawbacks that could have deterred him from realizing the current enormous entity’s global debut (Johansen 82). Many including health institutions have resulted to intense debates claiming the entity has significantly contributed to the menace of obesity especially among children (Korthals 33). Hence, leading to other serious health drawbacks whose medical treatments are extremely pricey to the extent some Americans are unable to afford. Those pushing for this debate contend food served by this entity has low nutritional value compared to what the entity has attractively relayed on the products’ labels (Korthals 33). This was evident in both UK and US where the

Medical Marijuana Legalization Essay Example for Free

Medical Marijuana Legalization Essay Are there medicinal benefits of marijuana? Could there really be more to the cannabis plant than â€Å"getting high? † Yes, the cannabis (scientific name for â€Å"marijuana†) plant does in fact have medical uses, and there is much more to this extraordinary plant than consuming it to experience its psychoactive effects. However, most Americans are unaware of the present day medicinal applications of cannabis. From migraines to multiple sclerosis, cannabis can help. The cannabis plant is grown naturally and contains no added chemicals, making it ideal. In modern medicine, the cannabis plant has many medical uses. Cannabis was legal to consume in the United States up until 1937, when the â€Å"marihuana tax act of 1937† made possession or transfer of cannabis illegal throughout the United States under federal law, excluding medical and industrial uses. The American Medical Association was not in favor of this legislation. Before this law was passed, marijuana was legal and quite popular in the United States. Martin Booth explains in his book Cannabis: A History, that In the 1880’s â€Å"hashish† parlors were very popular in America and it was estimated that their were around five hundred of these parlors in New York at the time. From 1850-1942 cannabis was listed in the U. S Pharmacopoeia as a useful medicine for nausea, rheumatism, and labor pains; it was also easily obtained at the local general store or pharmacy. More than 20 prescription medicines containing marijuana were sold in U. S. pharmacies at the turn of the 20th century, and marijuana-based medications were commonly available until cannabis was taken out of the U. S. Pharmacopeia in 1942. Then in 1970, the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, classified marijuana as a Schedule I drug. According to this act a schedule I drug means three things: the drug has high potential for abuse, the drug has no currently accepted medical use in the U. S, and there is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug under medical supervision. Other schedule I drugs include heroin, LSD, peyote, MDMA (ecstasy), and mescaline. The once medicinally valued cannabis plant is now classified with drugs in which have completely different and much more harmful effects. Marijuana cannot be classified with the other schedule I narcotics because it can be beneficial to many people with a number of different diseases or health problems. Marijuana can cure migraines, Doctors in California report they have cured over 300,000 cases of migraines with medical marijuana (medicalinsurance. org marijuana-health-facts). The American Association for Cancer Research has found that marijuana actually works to slow down tumor growth in the lungs, breasts, and brain considerably. Studies also suggest that use of medical marijuana helps lower intraocular pressure in the eyes of glaucoma patients (glaucoma. org /treatment/should-you-be-smoking-marijuana-to-treat-your-glaucoma-1. php). Marijuana is also a muscle relaxer that has antispasmodic qualities that have proven to be a very effective treatment for seizures (nimh. nih. gov). Marijuana works to stop the neurological effects and muscle spasms that come from multiple sclerosis by protecting nerves from the damage caused by the fatal disease (multiple-sclerosis. emedtv. com). Marijuana is so beneficial that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) actually used part of the plant. The main psychoactive ingredient in marijuana is tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC for short. The FDA isolated a single molecule cannabinoid pharmaceutical; it was called Marinol and was used for treatment of nausea and vomiting in cancer chemotherapy patients who did not respond to conventional antiemetic treatments, according to the article Medicinal use of cannabis in the United States: Historical perspectives, current trends, and future directions. From the same article the doctors talk about another medication with similar effects of marijuana, except this one is a synthetic molecule shaped similarly to THC. ) It’s called Nabilone and has been approved since 1985 for use with nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy in cancer patients. As of 2011 there are currently sixteen states and Washington D. C. that support medical marijuana. The sixteen states include: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Delaware, Hawaii, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington. Our federal government on the other hand, does not agree with these state laws and continues to prosecute medical marijuana users because it remains illegal under federal law. The medicinal uses of the cannabis plant have been around since our country was founded, yet in present time, marijuana â€Å"presents no known medicinal value†. The founding father of our nation George Washington, said, â€Å"Make the most of the Indian hemp seed, and sow it everywhere! It has been used in America since our country was founded, but as of now our country cannot come to terms of agreement regarding the cannabis plant. Marijuana can be used to treat or relieve symptoms of many diseases and discomforts, but for now its still illegal and preventing many Americans from getting their medicine. Marijuana has many uses but our federal government cannot see that or chooses not to believe it, regardless, it is still a very applicable medicine. Medical marijuana is used in other countries includin g our neighbor up north, Canada. So, why is it still illegal in America? If marijuana were to be legalized in the United States for medical purposes, our country would greatly benefit. Marijuana is one the purest most natural substances known to many yet it is referred to as a â€Å"drug†, however over fifty percent of Americans think that medical marijuana should be legalized. Sometime in the near future our country will recognize all the medical benefits of this magnificent plant, but until then it is still a federal crime to use and possess.

Motivating factors for sports tourism

Motivating factors for sports tourism SPORT TOURISM: FACTORS INFLUENCING MOTIVATION FOR SPORT TOURISM. OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Introduction.3 Purpose of the Study .3 Aims and Objectives.3/4 LITERATURE REVIEW.. Defining Sport Tourism4 Event Sport Tourism..4/5 Motivation Theory.5 Fan Motivations..5/6 METHODOLOGY.. Questionnaire based interviews6 Street Surveys..6/7 Focus Groups.7 Introduction purpose of study The purpose of this study is to provide an insight into visitor motivation for sport tourism. The proposal will investigate the importance of sport to individuals and the motivation to travel for sporting purposes. Sport tourism is an ever growing industry which has continued to thrive in all aspects, particularly of late. This is highlighted by Gibson (1998) who states that â€Å"the concept of sport-related tourism has become more prominent in the last few years as both an academic field of study and an increasingly popular tourism product†. The definitions of sport vary between authors with â€Å"some critics insisting that an all-embracing definition is impossible because sport is a socially constructed activity that has varied across historical eras, societies and cultures† (Ritchie Adair, 2004). Others have suggested that â€Å"sport has specific and timeless characteristics, such as being goal-oriented, competitive and a forum for the creation of winners and lo sers (Rader, 1979, Paddick 1975,Goodman, 1976)†. Furthermore, it is evident that like various other topic areas, sport tourism has a vast and broad research base. Sport and tourism are currently two of the most important industries, with a significant increase in tourists travelling for sport related purposes in recent years. However, researchers such as Delphy (1998) and Gibson (1998) have recognized that people have been travelling to participate or watch sports for centuries. Furthermore, Hall (1992) postulates that â€Å"sport tourism falls into two different categories, travel to participate in sport and travel to observe sport†. Sport tourists choose to travel to either participate or spectate. With regard to this, particular focus of this study will be placed on spectators and what motivates them to travel, attend and observe at various sporting events. Visitor motivation is a significant topic area which will be investigated rigorously within this study. The research will focus on the factors which influence motivation for sport event tourism. According to Mullins (2008) motivation is a force which drives any person to show a specific behaviour towards any condition or situation or things. Motivation is perceived by various authors as being either Intrinsic or Extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is widely regarded as a self generated procedure which encourages an individual to act in a particular way. Extrinsic motivation on the other hand is perceived as an external influence which encourages an individual to act in a certain way. In other words something is done for an individual to motivate them to behave in a specific way. Specific examples of motivation within businesses include freedom to act and responsibility (Intrinsic) and also promotion and praise from others (Extrinsic). Visitor motivation will look at tourist’s beh aviour, profiles and the motivation they have to attend various sporting events. Aims Objectives The main research question will be to ascertain what motivates individuals to travel for sporting events. The following aims and objectives will be pursued throughout the study in order to critically examine the topic area. To analyse visitor motivation theory To discuss the importance understanding of Sport Tourism To discuss factors of influence on travel motivations for spectators To attend numerous sporting events in order to get a feel of the influences on travel motivation The scope of research will be primarily focused on the relationship between motivation and sport tourism. In order to meet the aims of the study the following objectives will be set to enable a successful investigation into the research area: Assess the concepts, theories and models related to motivation Sport Tourism Examine previous studies related to sport event travel motivation Conduct primary and secondary research to understand the spectator experience Critical Literature Review The following literature review will provide an introduction on sport tourism, highlight the key authors related to the field and also provide a deeper understanding of the factors influencing people to conduct sport related tourism. Sports tourism is defined by Gibson (2006) as leisure based travel that takes individuals outside of their home communities to participate in physical activities (Active Sport Tourism), to watch physical activities (Event Sport Tourism) or to venerate attractions associated with physical activities (Nostalgia Sport Tourism).On the other hand, Standevan and De Knop (1999) define sport tourism as all forms of active and passive involvement in sporting activity, participated in casually or in an organised way for non-commercial or business/ commercial reasons, that necessitate travel away from home and work. The key authors related to this field of study include Heather Gibson, James Higham, Mike Weed and Thomas Hinch to name a few. Notable academic books and journals include Sport Tourism: Concepts and Theories (Gibson, 2006), Sport Tourism – Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues (Ritchie, B. Adair, D. 2004) and also The Journal of Sport Tourism. Although both definitions mentioned are very similar it is interesting to note that Gibson (2006) has separated sport tourism into three different segments. This includes Active Sport Tourism, Event Sport Tourism and also Nostalgia Sport Tourism. However, Standevan and De Knop (1999) have opted on a more broad definition stating that sport tourism is all forms of active and passive involvement in sporting activity. The definition provided by Gibson (2006) illustrates a clear and concise understanding of what sport tourism is whilst also depicting the different types of sport tourism specifically. Robinson and Gammon (2004) like Gibson (2006) have also separated sport tourists into different segments. They depicted that sport tourism could firstly be divided into two areas of focus, differentiating between those who travel primarily for sport (sport tourists) and those where sport is perceived as a secondary consideration (tourism sport). This study however, will focus on what Gibson (2006) describes as Event Sport Tourism. This refers to tourists who travel to spectate physical activities or events. Event tourism includes travelling to attend a range of different events although it is interesting to note that sporting events have had the most significant impact on the industry. This is backed up by authors Chalip and McGuirty (2004), Turco (2003) and Saayman and Uys (2003) who state that Although event tourism includes arts festivals and cultural activities as well as sport events, the latter have played a key role in the growth of the event industry. One reason for this is that sport events have been seen to make an effective contribution to the economic development mix of cities and regions. Furthermore, this study will aim to ascertain what motivates tourists to travel to watch sporting events. In order to determine this successfully the literature related to motivation theory will need to be critically discussed. According to the Journal of Sport (2004) The motivation(s) of the sport tourist has been a regular source of discussion within much of the sport tourism literature (Gammon and Robinson, 1997; Gibson, 1998a; Hinch and Higham, 2004; Kurtzman and Zauhar, 1995a; Standeven and De Knop, 1999). Every year there are numerous events taking place with increased numbers of tourists travelling. Tourism is conducted domestically as well as outbound in order to actively take part or spectate at sporting events. Hollyforde Widdett (2002) postulate that motivational theory â€Å"outlines a researchers answers to questions such as â€Å"why do people make the choices they make? Or what makes someone persist at one activity and yet quickly give up another â€Å". Abraham Maslow is a renowned psychologist who proposed the motivational theory the hierarchy of needs. This theory has been an important framework related to motivation and assumes that human motivations proceed through various stages of needs. The hierarchy of needs starts off with the more primary basic needs such as physiological and safety needs at the foundation further leading to belongingness love and esteem needs and lastly ending with self-actualisation. According to Gibson (2006) psychologists such Maslow and also Murray have long postulated that behaviour is a function of needs, indeed, much of their work has provided the theoretical foundation for studies that have investigated the relationship between leisure or tourism and need satisfaction. Fan motivations are an important aspect when determining the reasoning behind â€Å"Event Sport Tourism†. Tourists love for the game/sport provides a big influence in them wanting to travel in order to watch their favorite team/player or event live rather than from a television set. A good example of this would be Football, where individuals purchase season tickets in order to watch their team play on a regular basis. This includes home games only but first option on away games is usually provided. Tourists will also be motivated to attend the away games especially on the big European nights away from home in order to support their team. This relates to Simon Hudson’s theory that â€Å"sport events away from can have an appeal based on their uniqueness or their quality that, when combined with escaping from the familiar and routine, generates personal and interpersonal benefits which make it a worthwhile expenditure of time and resources. Sport event tourism also provide a range of positive impacts for the consumer, destination and also the events. This is backed up by Hudson (2003) who states that, Special events can attract more tourists than regularly scheduled games. Sport events attract corporate sponsors. When sport facilities are built, they become permanent event venues. Major sport events can be catalysts for new facilities and new or improved infrastructure. Sport events can assist in destination branding by providing powerful, active lifestyle images and making cultural themes come alive. (Hudson, 2003) It is envisaged that this study will further strengthen the current body of literature related to sport tourism. A conceptual framework will be used in order to meet the aims and objectives of the research, placing particular focus on â€Å"Event Sport Tourism†. Methodology The following section will provide details of how the planned research will be conducted, what method(s) will be used and how long it may take to obtain relevant data. According to the research methods workbook â€Å"the research process or methodology is the approach to the entire study – it is the master plan. It is the blueprint for achieving objectives, one of which is the production of the dissertation† (Workbook, 2014). There are generally two main processes of conducting research, the qualitative approach and the quantitative approach. Quantitative data is primarily concerned with assessing numerical data and conducting statistical tests. Conversely, qualitative data focuses on descriptions that can be observed and includes methods such as participant observation and unstructured interviews. In simple terms the main difference between the two approaches is that quantitative data collection deals with ‘quantity’ of research whereas ‘qualitative’ data collection emphasise quality research. The methodology section will emphasise how the research will be conducted in order to attain relevant information regarding sport tourism and motivational theory. Within this study it is envisaged that the research process will consist of questionnaire based interviews with tourists that attend sporting events. This will be completed in order to determine the factors which influence their decision/desire to attend. It is believed that interviews can have a number of positives including â€Å"the encouragement of participation, clarification of any confusion regarding questions and also the inclusion of people who are incapable of reading (Long, 2007)†. By mixing the two concepts of questionnaire and interview it will in a sense provide the â€Å"best of both worlds† and enable the researcher to gather sufficient data. Authors such as Kendall (2008) postulate that â€Å"while questionnaires can provide evidence of patterns amongst large populations, qualitative intervi ew data often gather more in-depth insights on participant attitudes, thoughts, and actions†. Furthermore, alternative research methods will also be taken into consideration in order to determine the most efficient and effective way of obtaining information. Street surveys and focus groups will be the other two approaches in question, they will be looked at in detail as potential research methods. Street surveys are a quantitative research method whereas focus groups provide a qualitative approach to data collection. Street surveys are a tempting research method considering it is an efficient way of gathering data from individuals. According to Long (2007) â€Å"street surveys are a quick and cheap route to gathering survey data. The ‘street’ in this may represent any convenient location for ‘capturing’ respondents (e.g. the mall or refectory/canteen). Street surveys will be conducted outside specific sporting events in order to receive data from relevant sport tourists. However, there are disadvantages like any other method, including relatively low response rates due to the typical locations in which surveys are conducted. The lack of quality of data gathered and the overall amount of data collected are also negatives of using this method. Conversely, surveys can also have various positives including the ease and efficiency of conducting the process. According to March (1982: 147) â€Å"Surveys have a lot to offer†¦.since experimentation cannot be used to inves tigate a wide range of macro-social processes, there is often no alternative to considering variation across cases in a systematic fashion†. Focus groups will also be taken into consideration when depicting the ideal research method to use in order to conduct research for this study. Focus groups are a traditionalist method of research, enabling the researcher to obtain information on a face to face and personal basis. Therefore, the researcher is able to obtain descriptive answers rather than numerical or statistical data. It is envisaged that â€Å"Qualitative research is generally based on the belief that the people personally involved in a particular (leisure or tourism) situation are best placed to describe and explain their experiences or feelings in their own words. They should be allowed to speak without the intermediary of the researcher and without being overly constrained by the framework imposed by the researcher† (Veal,2006) . With regard to this, focus groups should be high on the list of potential research methods. However, there are also disadvantages of using this method like any other. Focus grou ps can become difficult to control, analyse and conduct. It is easy to get a group of people together but it is not as easy to avoid disagreements, conflicts between individuals and irrelevant discussions. Transcribing a focus group is also a very time consuming process due to the amount of people involved within the discussion. Participants may also feel under pressure to follow the lead of a dominant individual within the group therefore succumbing to peer pressure and holding back their own views. Regardless of which research approach will be used, significant methods will need to be included within the process of obtaining information. This includes personally attending various sporting events in order to get an idea of the â€Å"spectator experience†. It is interesting to note that Weed (2008) postulates that in order to ascertain ‘why’ sport tourists travel, researchers need to focus on participation experiences underpinned by ontological research. Furthermore, significant library based research will need to be conducted as well as the visitation of numerous libraries and archives. Fieldwork will also be conducted during event visitations in order to broaden knowledge in relation to the topic area. The subjects of research will include randomly selected individuals with an interest in Event Sport Tourism. Conversely, small groups may be required if focus groups are chosen as the most suitable research method. The timeframe for the research to be conduct ed is yet to be finalised however, it is understood that the following research will take several months to complete in order to obtain the relevant data required. Bibliography Books Altinay, L and Paraskevas, A (2008) Planning Research in Hospitality and Tourism, Butterworth Heinemann, London Clark, M et al (1998) Researching and Writing Dissertations in Hospitality and Tourism, International Thomson Business Press, London Delpy, L. (2003). An introduction to sport and adventure tourism. In Hudson, S, Sport and Adventure Tourism (pp. 1-25). Haworth Hospitality Press Inc: Binghamton Gibson, H. (1998a). Active sport tourism: Who participates? Leisure Studies, 17, 155-170. Gibson, H. (1998b). Sport tourism: A critical analysis of research. Sport Management Review, 1, 45-76. Gibson, H (2006) Sport Tourism: Concepts and Theories, Oxon: Routledge Hall, C. (1992) Hallmark tourist events: Impacts, management and planning, London: Bellhaven Press Higham, J. and Hinch, T (2011). Sport Tourism Development. Bristol: Channel View Publications Hinch, T. Higham, J. (2008). Sport tourism: A framework for research. In Weed, M, Sport and Tourism: A Reader (pp. 40-56). New York, NY: Routledge. Hollyforde, S Widdett, S (2002) The Motivation Handbook. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development Hudson, S (2003) Sport and Adventure Tourism. New York: Haworth Hospitality Press. Hudson, S. Ritchie, B. (2001). Cross-cultural tourist behaviour: An analysis of tourist attitudes towards the environment. Journal of Travel Tourism Marketing, 10(2), 1-22. Long, J (2007) Researching Leisure, Sport and Tourism: The Essential Guide, London, SAGE Publications. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper Ritchie, B. Adair, D. (2004) Sport Tourism – Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues, London: Cromwell Press Robinson, T. Gammon, S. (2004). A question of primary and secondary motives: Revisiting and applying the sport tourism framework. Journal of Sport Tourism, 9(3), 221-233 Standeven, J. De Knop, P. (1999). Sport Tourism. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Vernon, M.D (1969) Humanmotivation.London : Cambridge U.P Veal, A (2011) Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide, Longman, Essex (4th edition) Weed, M (2008). Sport Tourism. Oxon: Routledge. Weed, M and Bull, C (2012). Sports Tourism. 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier Journals Harris, Lois R. Brown, Gavin T.L. (2010). Mixing interview and questionnaire methods: Practical problems in aligning data . Practical Assessment, Research Evaluation, 15(1). Available online: http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=15n=1. International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation and Tourism Journal of Sport Tourism-Abingdon Taylor Francis Ltd Kotze, N (2006). Urban Forum.Cape Town and the Two Oceans Marathon: The Impact of Sport Tourism. 17 (3) 1 | Page

The Hon. Dr :: essays research papers

Among the gay press's responses to my 1993 book A Place at the Table was the charge by some critics that I'm "sex-negative." Frank Browning griped that I want to "to have everyone put on 30 pounds, buy a Brooks Brothers suit, and wander off on the golf links, becoming [an] upper-class version of Ozzie and Harry. Those who don't want to take risks should join Mr. Bawer on the golf course. Those who want to feel alive will benefit from the exploration of our bodies and what our bodies can grant." Golf? Ozzie and Harry? Brooks Brothers? What, I wondered, does any of this have to do with what I've written? I've never been on a golf course. Or worn a Brooks Brothers suit. And when did I join the upper class? Of course I want gay people to enjoy what their bodies can grant. I also want them to have equal rights under the law, the love and respect of their friends and families, and a meaningful life beyond their orgasms. I want gay kids to grow up knowing that, as wonderful as sex can be, gay identity amounts to more than belonging to a "culture of desire." Browning and others mocked me for being "serious." Well, isn't discovering oneself as a gay individual in this society a serious challenge? Isn't gay rights a serious issue? Being serious about gay rights in public discourse doesn't preclude being able to have fun in one's personal life. Yet if some right-wing critics can't write about homosexuality without smirking, some gay writers seem unable to address the subject without prattling frivolously about their own sex lives and longings. Which is a shame, because it's vitally important for us to recognize that at the heart of homophobia lies an inability to see that gays can love each other as deeply and as seriously as straights can. Explaining why he'd refused to print my review of the film Longtime Companion, an American Spectator editor told a New York Observer reporter, "Bawer was striking a total equivalence between a heterosexual couple in love and a homosexual couple in love. To me, that wasn't convincing." That editor isn't alone in rejecting the idea of the moral equivalence of gays and straights. It's not only heterosexuals who draw these sex-related distinctions. "The defining thing about being gay," a gay man tells Susan Bergman in her new memoir, Anonymity, "is that you like to have sex a lot.

Creative Story: In Short :: essays research papers

Creative Story: In Short   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It all started not so long ago. In fact, though I can't be completely sure about it, I think it was only five months ago. My name is Jeff Washburn and I am a surgeon. Not that long ago my life under went a huge change. Unfortunately a huge misfortune had to take place first. Not that long ago, I had a terrible thing happen to me. A misfortune led to my being expelled from the hospital and my medical license being revoked. Two patients died on me. I might have gotten away with only one but the board of directors are good at finding patterns. Don't get me wrong, I want these people to die. I just happened to be drunk at the time. Now I drink even more just to soften the constant hangover. The hearing were probably the worst part of whole ordeal. Three weeks of being put in the spotlight. Every inch of my life was put under a big magnifying glass. Every mistake I made in the last fourteen years was read bunch of know-nothings who sit and pretend to run a hospital. The mistakes weren't very frequent, at least, not until I started to drink.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I suppose you want to know the reason I started to drink. Well, I mess up big time during a triple bypass and killed a patient. That's when the drinking started and the drinking lead to the death of another patient. Now I drink even more and remember even less which means its working.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  About a month ago I left England, which is where I worked, and moved here to a small fishing island off the coast of France. There is no doctor on the island so they welcomed me, sort of. I scare them I suppose. They're afraid they might catch me when I'm to drunk to work properly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  But now things are different. About three weeks ago I had a big wake-up call. I was sitting in my normal Sunday drunken stupor when a man was brought in to my office. This man had been seriously injured by gun shot wounds. Apparently he had be found in the ocean by a group of fishermen. I knew that I could not perform the necessary surgery in my present condition. I bandaged him up and stooped the major bleeding. Then I took two hours and did all I could to dry out. With my condition a little better I performed the most delicate surgery of my life. For another hour I scrubbed at the wound in his head.

Fake Analysis of Bridge to Terabithia Essay

In â€Å"Bridge To Terabithia,† written by Katherine Paterson, great friendships blossom from impertinent first impressions. Great friendship such as Leslie’s brings new experiences. Great friendships may come from unpromising first encounters and lead to new experiences. Leslie’s friendship came with the promise of a new beginning; reword this sentence Leslie opens a new world up to Jess full of creativity and imagination which â€Å"Leslie name[s] their secret land â€Å"’Terabithia†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢(50). Don’t end with a quote! Jess and Leslie create this secret world to escape the harsh reality of adolescence. The reason Jess and Leslie create this secret world is it allows them to escape the harsh reality of adolescence. Jess and Leslie agree to create a whole new imaginary country, eliminate that that â€Å"’We need a place’†¦ ‘It might be a whole secret country’†¦ ‘and you and I would be the rulers of it. ’†(50). Reword theres something off about this; Because Jess craves the attention of his hardworking father he in particular needs the escape that Terabithia provides. Jess in particular needs the escape since he craves the attention of his hardworking father â€Å"maybe’†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢he’d forget all about how tired he was from the long drive back and forth to Washington and the digging and hauling all day†(5). Make the quote relevant to him what is this quote supposed to say? Don’t end with a quote! Great friendships may come from unpromising first encounters and lead to new experiences. Change around, It is an idea that relates to life today since everyone has a friend and everyone must be open to new experiences they bring in a friendship. For example, you can never judge a book by its cover or by when you meet someone for the first time. Doesn’t make sense Another illustration is, to take the new experiences a new friendship has to offer and enjoying them. The human condition affects us still today because people take having a friend for granted until they are gone. What I have learned for reading â€Å"Bridge To Terabithia† is take out that that to open myself up to new friendships and take out new new experiences. I learned to enjoy the memories mad with the friends I have because at any given moment something could happen. Also, to enjoy the moments I have with my friends because you never know when something could happen at a moments notice. My viewpoint has been deeply enriched by this book because of then realistic human condition.

Ancient Egypt: Palaces and Pyramids

Palaces and Pyramids: A Deeper Look Pyramids have long been an image of ancient Egyptian lands and culture, being one of the most recognizable aspects of their life and culture. Huge man made buildings give tourists and many alike a view into the past the dedication these ancient people put-forth to their craft and cause. Not long before these great pyramids were raised, another people like the ancient Egyptians built huge complexes themselves.Great palace structures like that of Sargon II, discovered in Dur Sharrukin where present-day Khorsabad, Iraq is located, allow us to understand how these people of the Ancient Near East were vastly similar and respectfully different from the people of Ancient Egypt. The pyramids of Ancient Egypt help us journey into the past and help us gain an idea of what these huge structures meant to the people constructing them, and those who they were constructed for. These structures were built for the burial of kings, rulers, and people of the like.The y were raised high to the sky, thought to help these fallen leaders become closer to the gods and to allow an easy transition into the afterlife. They had slanted triangular walls which are thought to represent the slanting rays of the sun. The first of these burial chambers was a mastaba, which was low, solid, and rectangular in shape. These mastabas consisted of a chapel where the deceased person’s family and friends could pay tribute through the offering of gifts. A serdab was also inside the mastabas where the statue of ka (believed to be the soul of a person) was placed.An underground burial chamber completed the construction of the mastaba. These mastabas were originally built with mud brick, but as the culture progressed they were built with limestone. Eventually, the mastaba evolved into a much larger structure. This structure was a stacking of mastaba forms with a large mastaba at the base and decreasing in size as it extended vertically, like steps. The stepped pyra mid, as they were called, contained an original mastaba towards the center of this raised structure. It also contained an underground burial chamber just like the original mastabas.These huge pyramids were built with massive quantities of limestone making them very sturdy structures being able to withstand strong weather conditions. The pyramid structures that followed were slightly different in their structure and composition. They no longer contained the original mastaba like that of the stepped pyramids. Instead, they enclosed ascending and descending corridors leading to and from the underground burial chamber. There are also different in that they have small corridors that are believed to be air shafts. The most famous of these pyramid structures are the Great Pyramids of Giza in Giza.These pyramids were built by three successive kings Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Placed on the west side of the Nile, these pyramids were constructed as funerary temples for the three kings, each having his own built where he was to be place upon his death. These pyramids are of the regular pyramid variety, not displaying the steps like those of the stepped pyramids. The building of these pyramids was no ordinary task. Teams of workers transported stones averaging 2. 5 tons by muscle power, placing logs underneath as rollers, and sliding them across mud on sleds.When the kings died, they were embalmed and placed inside a coffin which was placed deep and underground within the pyramid inside the burial chamber. A large 50-ton stone block sealed off the burial chamber. These pyramids were used as a protection device as the kings’ souls each climbed to the sky to be amongst the gods. These pyramids of Giza also contained three false passage ways to further protect the kings from intruders entering the pyramid. Inscriptions of the deceased kings depict them climbing up rays of sun to join the sun god Ra.These inscriptions help tell us that the Egyptian people were highly invested in the afterlife and spent much time preparing for it. It also reinforces the structure and function of the pyramids as their slanting walls were thought to be built in accordance with the rays of the sun. The palace complexes of Assyria during the time period of the Ancient Near East were no slouch to the pyramids of ancient Egypt. These huge complexes were elaborate in design and structure as they were built for similar reasons to the pyramids of Egypt.These palace complexes were constructed in honor and tribute of kings just like the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. However, these palaces were built in honor of military victories and ruling success, unlike the reasons of the pyramids. Constructed with adobe brick, limestone, and marble the complexes were used with different kinds of material unlike the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. These complexes were lined with relief sculptures, paintings, and wall reliefs describing military victories of kings. These works helped show the pow er of the king to the people visiting and entering the complex.A famous palace complex was built by Sargon II and was located in Dur Sharrukin. Surrounding the castle complex was a protecting fortress. The palace complex was guarded by two towers and was only accessible by a wide ramp leading up to an open square around which government and religious officials were scattered about. The main courtyard was beyond this complex which housed service buildings on the right and temples to the left. The heart of the palace was just past the main courtyard where the king’s residence was located. A gate with large a pair of lamassu guarded the entrance to the king’s palace.Inside the palace was a large ziggurat made up of seven levels each painted a different color. This ziggurat was a symbol of the king’s claim to his empire. Both the pyramids of Ancient Egypt and the palace complexes of Assyria were massive architectural achievements of their respective time periods. Th ese huge structures help show the kind of religious and military commitment that the people of these two periods possessed. The palaces and pyramids were both built upon the idea of honoring the kings of the time, each through a different avenue.The pyramids of Ancient Egypt were used as a funerary complex to honor and ultimately assist their kings into the afterlife where they would live for eternity with the gods. The palace complexes were also built in tribute of their king but were used to honor military achievement and ruling success. Although we are uncertain of the exact meaning of everything to do with the two structures, they allow us to take a journey into the ancient world and better understand the culture and life of these interesting people.

Short written assingment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Short written assingment - Assignment Example Convened on November 20, 2013, the meeting was developed to touch on issues related to the use of intellectual property. The meeting took place between 11:30 am and 1:30 pm at the Offices of Greenberg Traurig, 4 Embarcadero Center, Suite 3000 in Francisco. The meeting was under the sponsorship of Greenberg Traurig. The main issue under discussion was â€Å"The latest in E-music issues.† The speaker during the meeting was the Intellectual property litigator, William Coats. He is an accomplished professional in matters related to trade secrets, copyrights, trademarks, and patents. He is quite conversant with dispute issues related to intellectual property especially relating to the movie, electronic as well as computer industries. Bill discussed a number of issues with the participants that gave them insight on various issues related to E-commerce. He focused more on the limitations and the provisions of intellectual property laws but never missed points related to the usability of e-commerce. Firstly, he talked about the utilization of advertising in the internet using the classical songs that were developed before 1972. Secondly, he talked about the legislations that were underway that could have an impact on e-commerce. Thirdly, he gave an insight on the use of small music clips without necessarily seeking for a license. Fourthly, he put into perspective the issue of using electronic signature when giving the rights to use the music, while considering the underlying the effects on e-commerce. Fifthly, he talked about the intellectual property rights that are likely to affect the use and sale of E-music. Finally, he talked about the fight against e-commerce by labels that have fought to have sale of music t hrough the internet disallowed. The meeting was geared towards sensitizing the committee on the possibilities and limitations of e-commerce as it relates to music. Intellectual priority was given the top priority while the laws that govern trade and

Crime Prevention in Criminal Justice System Research Paper

Crime Prevention in Criminal Justice System - Research Paper Example There are a variety of methods that authorities use to deal with and prevent crime, the common one being incarceration of criminals in jails and other rehabilitation centers, which has not proved effective in Springfield. Therefore, to deal with crime on the long term, a risk-focused approach offers better results in that the method deals with possible factors that would lead to crime. Crime rates in Springfield, IL Springfield is one of the areas that lead in crime rates across US and has been ranked as the third most dangerous area in the entire country (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2012). Springfield has a population of 206, 601 residents, one of the less populated metropolitan areas that have surpassed many areas in the level of reported crimes. In 2010, there were reported 855 violent crimes per 100,000 residents in Springfield IL, which made the metropolitan the third highest dangerous city in the US after Detroit and Memphis. Giuoffo noted that Springfield has an unemploym ent rate of less than the country’s average of 7% as of July 2011, implying that unlike other areas, economy in the city may not be blamed for the high crime rate as the city is above average compared to many other cities. The metropolitan has a young population, that 66% of all residents are 44 years old or younger, which has been perceived as a contributing factor to the high crime rate (Giuffo, 2011). In addition, the city has high usage of methamphetamine, a prevalent drug across the area. All the same, a law was passed in the last few years that made it difficult to buy the drugs, which according to FBI has considerably reduced the crime rates (FBI, 2012). In addition to drug use, Springfield has a much poorer neighborhood in the city’s suburbs that has been blamed for the high rate of crime in the metropolitan. Consequently, indications are that crime rates in Springfield have soared due to a young population, use of hard drugs and a poor neighborhood. Generally, Springfield, IL in 2011 had a total population of 210,802 residents with a crime rate of 711.6 per 100, 000 residents. The city had a lower murder rate at 4.3, with property crime rates, burglary and larceny theft recorded at 4,290.8, 1,118.1 and 3,034.1 per 100,000 residents respectively (FBI, 2012 Abilene in Texas has a population of 168,729 slightly less than Springfield with the rate of violent crimes recorded at 297.5 per 100,000 residents. Property crime in this area is highest at 3,029.7 per 100,000 residents with murder being the lowest at 3.0 per 100,000 residents (FBI, 2012). On the contrary, Alexandria, LA has a population of 155,330 residents with a crime rate of 662 per 100,000 residents. The highest crime in this area is property crimes at 4.050.7 and the lowest crime being murder at 5.0 per 100,000 residents. On the same note, Appleton in Wisconsin has a total population of 226,649 residents with the crime rate being 509.5 per 100,000 residents. The highest crime in the area is property crime at 4,271.3 with the lowest crime being murder at a relatively higher rate of 11.8 per 100,000 residents. Comparing this data to the national statistics, the national violent crime rate was at 386.3 per

Analyzing langguage Communities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analyzing langguage Communities - Essay Example The modern society has developed a different meaning of the term queer in comparison to what was known two decades ago. The society viewed gay, lesbians, and bisexuals as individuals who had queer character traits. The morals of lesbians, gays or bisexuals were queer to the society. In many cases, the society would refer to these groups of people as queer. In response to this term, the gay, lesbians and bisexuals decided to defiantly apply this name. The term queer loses its original meaning when gay; lesbians or the bisexuals feel that the term is okay with them. It has become a common language in the streets. Some gays or lesbians respond to it by claiming that they teach the straight people how to dress or introduce new fashion to the straight people in the society. Whenever the gays or lesbians react in this manner, the term queer does not seem to have a negative impact or meaning to their morals. I think that in trying to cope with the humiliation brought by the term, they have resorted into mocking the society or the straight people. History indicates that lesbian and gay activists started using queer in 1980s as a self-identification. On the contrary, it did not appear to them as an insult, but as a means that promoted their motives to the society. When lobbying for their activities and principles in the society, the activists propagated the name to identify themselves as people who are queer to the society. It is true that their moral is queer, as the name would seem to suggest. The continuous or the public use of the term queer by the lesbians, gays, and bisexuals has led to erosion of the real meaning of the term. Notably, the society would adopt names according to the immediate meaning. The next generation may not know the genesis of the term queer, but would adopt it in their normal language usage. Many people still feel that queer is a term that insults on the behavior or the conduct of an individual. This especially applies when the individual in question belong to the gay or lesbian community. The term has a greater harm to the individual especially in an environment where people associate the term to gay or lesbian practices. Some people may not treat any insult lightly; it might result into shady show in the streets. The insulted individual may decide to retort back by hulling abusive words. The society regards a name as an important tool that markets a character. Any situation that taints the name of an individual may elicit heated reactions. Culturally, gay or lesbians have no place in the society. People who advocate for good cultural practices believe that gay or lesbians have raped good morals. The social acceptance of an individual in the society depends of cultural inclination of the society. Queer means cultural rejection of a particular trait of an individual. Names given to events or occurrences define the social values of the community. Gay and lesbians value their characters in contrasts to the society. The so ciety attributes the term queer to a lost value or something that is worthless. Each individual would wish to have some value in the society. Gay and lesbians exert their worthiness in the society by identifying themselves using this term. In the past the term elicited negative reaction, but today it has taken a new drift. Gay and lesbian lobbyist

The Revolutionary Context of the Constitutional Convention Essay

The Revolutionary Context of the Constitutional Convention - Essay Example e revolutionaries believed that â€Å"proper constitutions†¦depended on consent, but governments existed in order to protect the liberties of all†¦[the revolutionaries searched for a] governmental structure in which liberty and representative democracy could be combined.† While there were undoubtedly fundamental problems with creating the sort of government where the officials held little to no power, Banning argues that â€Å"whatever the Revolution was or would become, its essence lay originally in these thirteen problematic experiments in constructing republican regimes† (PAGE #). As such, it is evidenced that the State Constitutions of the individual colonial governments was a precursor to the greater Continental government establishment, and provided an ideal staging ground for the revolutionaries to experiment with the idea of new government. Arguably, the most significant accomplishment of the Articles of Confederation was establishing â€Å"a permanent confederation presided over by a Congress whose authority would be confined to matter of interest to all† (Banning, PAGE #). The Articles of Confederation, according to Banning, â€Å"did not issue from a systematic, theoretical consideration of the problems of confederation government† (PAGE #). Rather they merely emulated the government practices that had evolved in the State Constitutions over the years. While it was popularly taught that the Articles of Confederation were characterized by a chaotic period in the early colonies, recent scholarship attributes greater credit to the Articles than in times past. For instance, Banning points out that the Confederation years, aside from consolidating the thirteen states, â€Å"secured their independence and won a generous treaty of peace†¦weathered a severe post-war depression†¦and organized the are a northwest of the Ohio for settlement† (PAGE #). The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, in fact, became the basis for â€Å"all the rest of the continental expansion of the

McDonalds Business Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9500 words

McDonalds Business Strategy - Essay Example By 1968, the chain comprised 1,000 units, which rose to 5,000 units by 1978. By 2001, the company operated around 30,000 units worldwide. Whilst keeping menus limited, McDonald's diversified its range from its original hamburgers and cheeseburgers. In 1964, the company launched its Filet-o-Fish sandwich, followed by signature burger the Big Mac in 1968, Happy Meals in 1979 and Chicken McNuggets in 1983. (Keynote, 2003; Leitch; 2004) While the majority of sales remain concentrated on burgers and fries, drinks and desserts are important and the brand periodically experiments with other menu additions, such as salads and local specialities. McDonald’s currently gearing up for the introduction of a new salad range in 2006. The late-1990s saw McDonald's shift its focus, as burger fast food, especially in the US, seemed dangerously crowded and mature. Consequently, McDonald’s focused on diversification, introducing new menu items and aiming to attract a more adult demographic, while retaining its core consumer base of children. 2000 saw the introduction of salads, low-fat desserts and a wider choice of chicken and fish burgers. The company also began to relax the McDonald's formula, introducing more regional menu variations and experimenting with new formats, such as cafà ©s and kiosks. This strategy of diversification also resulted in a number of acquisitions during the review period, seeing a shift away from its traditional single-brand focus. In 1998, McDonald’s purchased London-based coffee chain Aroma and in 1999 and 2000 McDonald’s purchased US chains Donatos Pizzeria with an emphasis on â€Å"home-cooked meal† style fast food. ... The company also began to relax the McDonald's formula, introducing more regional menu variations and experimenting with new formats, such as cafs and kiosks. This strategy of diversification also resulted in a number of acquisitions during the review period, seeing a shift away from its traditional single-brand focus. In 1998, McDonald's purchased London-based coffee chain Aroma and in 1999 and 2000 McDonald's purchased US chains Donatos Pizzeria (Ohio based), Mexican self-service cafeteria brand Chipotle (Denver based) and Boston Market with an emphasis on "home-cooked meal" style fast food. Beyond acquisitions, McDonald's also made a series of strategic investments. In February 2001, McDonald's acquired a minority interest (33%) in the British sandwich chain Pret a Manger. In 2002, McDonald's formed a joint venture with Fazoli's, a fast casual Italian restaurant concept based in Lexington, Kentucky, to develop 20-30 Fazoli's restaurants in the US. (Leitch; 2004) This also gave McDonald's the option to purchase the entire company at a later date. The company also opened its first multibranded unit, offering Boston Market, Donatos and McDonald's. However, these acquisitions did not prove wholly successful. In 2002, the company experienced a difficult year, culminating in its first ever quarterly loss. This poor performance was partly due to weak economies in Latin America and APMEA (Asia-Pacific, Middle East and Africa) and to increasing competition in mature US and Western European fast food. However, the company also felt that its strategy of brand diversification was d iluting its focus on core brand McDonald's. In 2002, Aroma was sold to Caff Nero and in 2003

Germany and the Germans Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Germany and the Germans - Essay Example What initiated the project were the bad incidents that happened in the history of Germany before 1988 and thus some Germans, under the supervision of Lea Rosh the journalist, wanted a public visualization of the history in the form of a sculpture. Eisenman was nominated by the Chancellor Halmet Kohl after much hunt, and the project continued even after Kohl lost the elections. The project was funded by the Parliament. The theme behind the creation of this memorial was to officially acknowledge the fact that the German government in the past had committed genocide against the Europian Jews; that the Jews were made to go through hard times through victimization; and, that the coming generations may be able to remember the violence that was seen during the Hitler’s era. The center of Berlin was also chosen with the same objective that it should be remembered as the Nazis had planned to commit genocide against the Jews at that place. Serra had left in the middle of the sculptureâ €™s creation due to some conflicts about the development of the project. Eisenman successfully completed the project and very efficiently dealt with the conflicts and controversies that arose during the project.

Effects of Behavioral Interventions on Disruptive Behavior and Affect in Demented Nursing Home Residents Essay Example for Free

Effects of Behavioral Interventions on Disruptive Behavior and Affect in Demented Nursing Home Residents Essay Behavioral interventions might ameliorate them and have a positive effect on residents’ mood (affect). Objectives: This study tested two interventions—an activities of daily living and a psychosocial activity intervention—and a combination of the two to determine their efficacy in reducing disruptive behaviors and improving affect in nursing home residents with dementia. Methods: The study had three treatment groups (activities of daily living, psychosocial activity, and a combination) and two control groups (placebo and no intervention). Nursing assistants hired specifically for this study enacted the interventions under the direction of a master’s prepared gerontological clinical nurse specialist. Nursing assistants employed at the nursing homes recorded the occurrence of disruptive behaviors. Raters analyzed videotapes filmed during the study to determine the interventions’ influence on affect. Results: Findings indicated significantly more positive affect but not reduced disruptive behaviors in treatment groups compared to control groups. Conclusions: The treatments did not specifically address the factors that may have been triggering disruptive behaviors. Interventions much more precisely designed than those employed in this study require development to quell disruptive behaviors. Nontargeted interventions might increase positive affect. Treatments that produce even a brief improvement in affect indicate improved quality of mental health as mandated by federal law. Key Words: affect †¢ Alzheimer’s disease †¢ behavior therapy †¢ dementia †¢ nursing homes Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 proximately 1. 3 million older Americans live in nursing homes today (Magaziner et al. , 2000). By 2030, with the aging of the population, the estimated demand for long-term care is expected to more than double (Feder, Komisar, Niefeld, 2000). Thus, nursing home expenditures could grow from $69 billion in 2000 to $330 billion in 2030 (Shactman Altman, 2000). About half of new nursing home res idents have dementia (Magaziner et al. , 2000). The disease has an impact on four major categories of functioning in persons with dementia. These are disruptive behavior (DB), affect, functional status, and cognition (Cohen-Mansfield, 2000). This article will focus on the first two categories. Disruptive behavior has received much more attention than affect has (Lawton, 1997), perhaps for three reasons. First, more than half (53. 7%) of nursing home residents display DB with aggression (34. 3%) occurring the most often (Jackson, Spector, Rabins, 1997). Second, DB threatens the wellbeing of the resident and others in the environment. Consequences include: (a) stress experienced by other resiCornelia K. Beck, PhD, RN, is Professor, Colleges of Medicine and Nursing, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Theresa S. Vogelpohl, MNSc, RN, is President, ElderCare Decisions. Joyce H. Rasin, PhD, RN, is Associate Professor, School of Nursing, University of North Carolina. Johannah Topps Uriri, PhD(c), RN, is Clinical Assistant Professor, College of Nursing, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Patricia O’Sullivan, EdD, is Associate Professor, Office of Educational Development, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Robert Walls, PhD, is Professor Emeritus, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Regina Phillips, PhD(c), RN, is Assistant Professor, Nursing Villa Julie College. Beverly Baldwin, PhD, RN, deceased, was Sonya Ziporkin Gershowitz Professor of Gerontological Nursing, University of Maryland. A Note to Readers: This article employs a number of acronyms. Refer to Table 1 to facilitate reading. 219 220 Effects of Behavioral Interventions Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 TABLE 1. Acronyms Term Activities of daily living Analysis of variance Apparent affect rating scale Arkansas Combined Disruptive behavior(s) Disruptive behavior scale Licensed practical nurse(s) Maryland Mini mental status exam Negative visual analogue scale Nursing home nursing assistant(s) Observable displays of affect scale Positive visual analogue scale Project nursing assistant(s) Psychosocial activity Research assistant(s) Acronym ADL ANOVA AARS AR CB DB DBS LPN MD MMSE NVAS NHNA ODAS PVAS PNA PSA RA decreases in targeted behaviors (Gerdner, 2000; Matteson, Linton, Cleary, Barnes, Lichtenstein, 1997). However, others reported nonsignificant reductions (Teri et al. , 2000), no change (Churchill, Safaoui, McCabe, Baun, 1999), or increased behavioral symptoms (Mather, Nemecek, Oliver, 1997). These studies used nursing home staffs to collect data, had sample sizes below 100, and measured an array of DB with different assessments. Only in the last decade have researchers investigated affect. Compared to studies to reduce DB, far fewer studies have measured interventions using affect as an outcome measure. Studies reported positive outcomes on affect from such interventions as simulated presence therapy (Camberg et al. , 1999), Montessori-based activities (Orsulic-Jeras, Judge, Camp, 2000), advanced practice nursing (Ryden et al. , 2000), music (Ragneskog, Brane, Karlsson, Kihlgren, 1996), rocking chair therapy (Watson, Wells, Cox, 1998), and pet therapy (Churchill et al. , 1999). The studies on affect used global measures that relied on observer interpretation, which could have compromised objectivity. Theoretical Bases A number of conceptual frameworks have guided intervention research on persons with cognitive impairment (Garand et al. , 2000). The theoretical basis for this study was that individuals have basic psychosocial needs, which, when met, reduce DB (Algase et al. , 1996) (Table 2). The interventions, one focusing on activities of daily living (ADL) and the other focusing on psychosocial activity (PSA), and a combination (CB) of the two, were developed to meet most of the basic psychosocial needs that Boettcher (1983) identified. These included territoriality, privacy and freedom from unwanted physical intrusion; communication, opportunity to talk openly with others; self-esteem, respect from others and freedom from insult or shaming; safety and security, protection from harm; autonomy, control over one’s life; personal identity, access to personal items and identifying material, and cognitive understanding, awareness of surroundings and mental clarity. The section on study groups specifies which interventions were designed to meet which needs. Positive affect usually accompanies interventions that meet basic psychosocial needs (Lawton, Van Haitsma, Klapper, 1996). Several researchers and clinicians have suggested that displays of affect may offer a window for revealing demented residents’ needs, preferences, aversions (Lawton, 1994), and responses to daily events (Hurley, Volicer, Mahoney, Volicer, 1993). The study reported here dents and staff; (b) increased falls and injury; (c) economic costs, such as property damage and staff burn-out, absenteeism, and turnover; (d) emotional deprivation such as social isolation of the resident; and (e) use of physical or pharmacologic restraints (Beck, Heithoff, et al. 1997). Third, before the Nursing Home Reform Act (Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act, 1987), nursing homes routinely applied physical and chemical restraints to control DB with only moderate results (Garand, Buckwalter, Hall, 2000). However, the Act mandated that residents have the right to be free from restraints imposed for discipline or convenience and not required to treat the residents’ medical symptoms. Thus, researcher s have tested a wide range of behavioral interventions to reduce DB and replace restraints. The Act (1987) also stipulated that all residents are entitled to an environment that improves or maintains the quality of mental health. Interventions that promote positive mood or affect fulfill this entitlement. Therefore, this article will report the effects of an intervention to increase functional status in activities of daily living (Beck, Heacock, et al. , 1997), a psychosocial intervention, and a combination of both on reducing DB and improving affect of nursing home residents with dementia. TABLE 2. Basic Psychosocial Needs Relevant Literature Literature suggests that behavioral interventions offer promise in managing DB. A wide range of modalities and approaches have been tested: (a) sensory stimulation (e. g. , music); (b) physical environment changes (e. g. , walled garden); (c) psychosocial measures (e. g. , pet therapy); and (d) multimodal strategies. Many studies found significant Territoriality Communication Self-esteem Safety and security Autonomy Personal identity Cognitive understanding Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 Effects of Behavioral Interventions 221 adopted the inference by Lawton et al. (1996) that frequent displays of positive affect when basic psychosocial needs are met might indicate improved emotional wellbeing. is leg continually and without apparent reason needs redirection. This intervention lasted 45–60 minutes a day during various ADL. PSA Intervention. A PNA also conducted the PSA intervention, which involved 25 standardized modules designed to meet the psychosocial needs for communication, selfesteem, safety and security, personal identity, and cogni tive understanding through engagement in meaningful activity while respecting the individual’s unique cognitive and physical abilities (Baldwin, Magsamen, Griggs, Kent, 1992). The intervention was chosen because it: (a) provided a systematic plan for the PNA to address some of the participant’s basic psychosocial needs; and (b) represented clinical interventions that many long-term care facilities routinely used, but had not been formalized into a research protocol or systematically tested. Each module contained five psychosocial areas of content (expression of feelings, expression of thoughts, memory/recall, recreation, and education) and stimulated five sensory modalities (verbal, visual, auditory, tactile, and gustatory/olfactory). For instance, Activity Module I involved life review, communicating ideas visually (identifying and making drawings), clapping to different rhythms, massaging one’s face, and eating a snack. Initially, many participants tolerated less than 15 minutes of the activity but eventually habituated and participated 30 minutes. CB Intervention. This treatment consisted of both the ADL and PSA interventions and lasted 90 minutes daily. Placebo Control. This involved a one-to-one interaction between the participant and PNA. It controlled for the effect of the personal attention that the PNA provided to the three treatment groups. The PNA asked the participant to choose the activity, such as holding a conversation or manicuring nails. It lasted 30 minutes a day. No Intervention Control. This condition consisted of routine care from a NHNA with no scheduled contact between participants and the PNA. Instruments: Disruptive Behavior Scale. The 45-item disruptive behavior scale (DBS), designed to construct scores based on the occurrence and severity of behaviors, assessed the effect of the interventions on DB (Beck, Heithoff et al. 1997). Gerontological experts (n 29) established content validity, and interrater reliability tests yielded an interclass correlation coefficient of . 80 (p . 001). Geropsychiatricnursing experts weighted the behaviors using a Q-sort to improve the scale’s capacity to predict perceived patient disruptiveness. Factor analysis identified four factors (Beck et al. , 1998). Two corresponded to two—physically aggressive and physically nonaggressive—of the three categories from the factor analysis of the Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (Cohen-Mansfield, Marx, Rosenthal, 1989). The third category of the Inventory was verbally agitated; in contrast, the factor analysis of the DBS produced a third and fourth category—vocally agitated and vocally aggressive. To obtain a score for the DBS, a trained individual completed a DBS form for every hour of a shift by check- Methods The primary aim was to conduct a randomized trial of the ADL and PSA interventions individually and in combination (CB) for their effect on DB and affect on a large sample of nursing home residents. The experimental design consisted of three treatment groups (ADL, PSA, and Combined) and two control groups (placebo and no intervention). Individual residents were assigned to one of the five groups at each of seven sites in Arkansas and Maryland, which controlled for site differences. To demonstrate the practicability of the interventions and assure adherence to the treatment protocols, certified nursing assistants were hired and trained as project nursing assistants (PNA). They implemented the interventions Monday–Friday for 12 weeks. Afterward, one-month and two-month follow-up periods occurred. Nursing assistants employed by the nursing homes (NHNA) recorded DB. To measure affect, raters were hired for the study to analyze videotapes filmed during intervention. Research Subjects: The sample initially consisted of 179 participants. The study design allowed for the detection of an improvement in DB scores on the Disruptive Behavior Scale (DBS) (Beck, Heithoff et al. , 1997) across time of at least 1. 6 units with a power of 80%. This power calculation assumed that the repeated measures would be correlated with one another at 0. 60. Inclusion criteria were age 65; a dementia diagnosis; a Mini Mental Status Exam (MMSE) (Folstein, Folstein, McHugh, 1975) score of 20; and a report of DB in the previous two weeks. To form a more homogeneous group for generalizing findings, exclusion criteria were a physical disability that severely limited ADL; a psychiatric diagnosis; and a progressive or recurring medical, metabolic, or neurological condition that might interfere with cognition or behavior. Study Groups: ADL Intervention. A PNA used the ADL intervention during bathing, grooming, dressing, and the noon meal based on successful protocols that improved functional status in dressing (Beck, Heacock et al. , 1997). It attempted to meet residents’ psychosocial needs for territoriality, communication, autonomy, and self-esteem to promote their sense of safety and security. The intervention also tried to respect participants’ cognitive and physical abilities by prescribing three types of strategies specific to the individual participant. First, strategies to complete an ADL address specific cognitive deficits. For example, the person with ideomotor apraxia needs touch or physical guidance to start movements. Second, standard strategies are behaviors and communication techniques that work for almost everyone with dementia. For example, the caregiver gives a series of one-step commands to guide the resident to put on her shoe. Third, problem-oriented strategies address particular disabilities such as fine motor impairment, physical limitations, or perseveration. For example, a subject who rubs his hand back and forth on 222 Effects of Behavioral Interventions ing the behaviors that occurred. The score for a behavior was the frequency (0–8) times the weight. The item scores were summed to obtain each of the four subscale scores. Mini Mental Status Exam. The Mini Mental Status Exam (MMSE) (Folstein et al. 1975) provided a global evaluation of participants’ cognitive statuses for screening subjects for the study. Test-retest reliability of the MMSE is . 82 or better (Folstein et al. ). Cognition is assessed in seven areas, and scores lower than 24 out of 30 indicate dementia. Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 Observable Displays of Affect Scale. The Observable Displays of Affect Scale (ODAS) (Vogelpohl Beck, 1997), designed to rate videotaped data, contains 41 behaviors categorized into six subscales of positive and negative facial displays, vocalizations, and body movement/posture. Raters indicate presence/absence of each behavior during five 2-minute intervals from a 10minute videotape. Scores range from 0–5 for each item. The range of scores for each scale is: facial positive (0–20), Aggression during bathing facial negative (0–20), vocal positive (0–45), vocal negative (0–50), body could stem from physical positive (0–30), and body negative discomfort or rough (0–40). Interrater reliabilities (Kappa handling coefficients) for the ODAS range from . 68–1. 00, and intrarater reliability is . 97–1. 00. Ten gerontological nursing experts established content validity (Vogelpohl Beck). Apparent Affect Rating Scale. The Apparent Affect Rating Scale (AARS) (Lawton et al. , 1996) is designed for direct observation of persons with dementia and contains six affective states: pleasure, anger, anxiety/fear, sadness, interest, and contentment. (In later work, Lawton, Van Haitsma, Perkinson, Ruckdeschel [1999] deleted contentment). Each item has a noninclusive list of behaviors that might signal the presence of the affect from which observers infer the affect. The observer assigns a score of 1 to 5 to measure the duration of the behavior. Visual Analogue Scales. The Positive Visual Analogue Scale (PVAS) and Negative Visual Analogue Scale (NVAS) (Lee Kieckhefer, 1989; Wewers Lowe, 1990) are two 10centimeter lines on separate pages for rating positive and negative affect. The PVAS has end anchors of â€Å"no positive affect† and â€Å"a great deal of positive affect. † The NVAS has end anchors of â€Å"no negative affect† and â€Å"a great deal of negative affect. † Scores range from 0 to 100. Procedure: The study consisted of six phases: (a) preliminary activities, (b) a three-week normalization/desensitization period, (c) a 12-week intervention period, (d) a onemonth follow-up period, (e) a two-month follow-up period, and f) a videotape analysis. Preliminary Activities. The institutional review boards at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and the Univer- sity of Maryland approved the research. Each nursing home identified residents with dementia and sent letters informing persons responsible for the residents that researchers would be contacting them. Responsible persons could return a signed form if they did not want to participate. Willing responsible persons received a telephone call explaining the study followed by a mailed written description along with two consent forms. Those willing kept one consent form for their records and signed and mailed back the other. Screening involved a review of the residents’ charts, recording their diagnoses, and interviews with the staff to find evidence of DB during the previous two weeks. Each resident took the MMSE to meet inclusion criteria. Within each home, female residents who passed these screens were randomized to one of the five groups by a drawing, but males were assigned to the five groups to ensure even distribution of their small number. Simultaneously, research staff members were hired and trained. Normalization/Desensitization. For the next three weeks, each PNA accompanied a NHNA to learn the routines of the facility but did not help care for potential study participants. A videotape technician placed a camera that was not running in the dining and shower rooms to desensitize residents and staff to its presence. In addition, nursing home staffs participated in two-hour training sessions on the DBS. Throughout the study, a gerontological clinical nurse specialist trained any new NHNA and retrained if behaviors reported on the DBS differed from those she observed during randomized checks. Intervention. During the 12-week intervention period, the first three weeks were considered baseline and the last two weeks postintervention. The PNA administered the treatment/s or placebo five days a week. Every day, they asked participants to give their assent and espected any dissents. During weeks 11–12 (postintervention), the PNA prepared the participants for their departure by telling them that they were leaving soon. To facilitate data collection, a separate form of the DBS for each of the three eight-hour daily shifts was developed. Eight one-hour blocks accompanied each item of the scale. The NHNA placed a check mark in the block that corresponded to the hour when the NHNA observed the behavi or. The NHNA completed the DBS on all participants during or at the end of a shift. In addition, a technician videotaped participants in the treatment and placebo groups every other week during an interaction with the PNA and no intervention group monthly during an ADL. The technician monitored positioning and operation of the camera from outside the room or behind a curtain to respect the participants’ privacy. One-Month and Two-Month Follow-up. One month and two months after the research team left the nursing home, Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 Effects of Behavioral Interventions 223 esearch assistants (RA) retrained nursing home staffs on the DBS. The NHNA then collected DB data on their shifts Monday–Friday for one week. tervention, week 16 as one-month follow-up, and week 20 as two-month follow-up. Participants with fewer than six observations at any time period were omitted. For each period, a total DBS score represented an averVideotape Analysis. The videotapes ranged in length from age of the participant’s data for the t hree shifts of each day less than five minutes to 40 minutes, depending on the across the five days of the observation week. Therefore, activity and the participant’s willingness to cooperate with total DBS scores were obtained for baseline (M of weeks the treatment (baseline and control participants’ tapes 1–3), intervention (M of weeks 4–10), postintervention (M tended to be shorter). To standardize the opportunity for of weeks 11–12), first follow-up (M of week 16), and secbehaviors to occur, an editor took 10-minute segments ond follow-up (M of week 20). The same procedure from the middle of baseline and final treatment eek tapes yielded subscale scores for physically aggressive, physically and randomized them onto videotapes for rating. Because nonaggressive, vocally aggressive, and vocally agitated videotaping occurred to ensure appropriate implementabehaviors for each of the five time periods. tion of interventions, the treatment groups had more A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) usable videotapes than the control groups did. consisted of two between- subjects and one within-subjects A master’s prepared gerontological factors. The between-subjects factors nurse specialist intensively trained six were intervention group and state (AR raters on the Observer III Software or MD) to account for regional differSystem (Noldus Information Technolences in scoring DB, and the withinogy, 1993) for direct data entry and subjects factor represented DBS scores the affect rating scales. The raters for the five different time periods. Each reached . 80 agreement with the speanalysis allowed for testing by intervencialist on practice tapes before they tion group, time period, and state. The Screaming may started rating the study videotapes. nalysis of the interaction effect of She monitored reliability for each tape intervention group by time period express pain or monthly, retrained as needed, and rantested the hypothesis that the intervenself-stimulation domized the sequence of rating the tions would decrease DB across time in scales. The raters entered the ODAS treatment conditions as compared to and AARS data directly into a comcontrol conditions. The analysis was puter using the Observer. The system repeated five times, once for each suballowed raters to watch videos repeatscale of the DBS and once for the total edly in actual time and slow action to score. Level of significance was set at document behaviors objectively and 0. 05. The researchers believed that the precisely. The raters indicated their small group sizes justified the liberal perception of the participants’ positive and negative level of significance. For the videotape analysis, analyses of affect by placing a vertical mark at some point between covariance occurred for the 14 variables observed from the the two end anchors of the PVAS and NVAS. They videotapes during intervention. The baseline score served marked neutral affect as negative. s a covariate for the final score. While a multivariate analysis would have been desirable, it would have had Intervention Integrity: The PNA and video camera techniinsufficient power with this number of variables and subcian underwent two weeks of intensive training on general jects. The 14 univariate analyses do inflate the Type I error aging topics, stress management, information on dementia, rate. and confidentiality/privacy issues. Training also involved instruction on the study interventions, DBS, and research Results protocols. Of the 179 initial participants, 36 did not finish; the greatA gerontological clinical nurse specialist viewed treatest attrition occurred in the no intervention control group. ment and placebo videotapes biweekly in a private office to Attrition resulted from death (39%), withdrawal of fammonitor PNA compliance with research protocols, provide ily’s consent or at nursing home staff’s request (26%), discorrective feedback to PNA, and help PNA recognize and charge (18%), and change in health status/medications meet participants’ needs as they changed during treatment. hat did not meet inclusion criteria (17%). This left 143 The possibility for contamination appeared to be low participants: 29 in the ADL, 30 in PSA, 30 in CB, 30 in the because NHNA were unlikely to change their care practices placebo, and 24 in the no intervention, but 16 with incomand had little opportunity to observe PNA. Further, NHNA plete data were dropped. Table 3 gives the demographic were b linded to the hypothesis of the study, the nature of the statistics for the 127 participants with complete data. No interventions, and the participants’ group assignments, statistically significant demographic differences emerged although they probably could identify the no intervention among the five groups. In short, this sample primarily conparticipants. sisted of elderly, white females with severe cognitive impairment. Analysis: Reviewers checked for completeness of all data. For the videotape analysis, the final number was 84 The researchers designated intervention weeks 1–3 as baseparticipants with 168 videotape segments. Most were line, weeks 4–10 as intervention, weeks 11–12 as postin- 224 Effects of Behavioral Interventions Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 TABLE 3. Description of the Sample by Intervention Group No Intervention 19 89. 5 78. 9 84. 2 86. 47 (6. 37) 11. 47 (6. 43) ADL Number in group Percent female Percent white Percent widowed Mean age (SD) M MMSE (SD) 28 78. 6 82. 1 64. 3 82. 29 (8. 40) 11. 44 (7. 69) PSA 29 82. 1 85. 7 66. 7 82. 18 (7. 64) 10. 65 (6. 76) CB 22 81. 8 77. 3 77. 3 82. 82 (9. 81) 7. 91 (5. 41) Placebo 29 75. 9 86. 2 75. 9 86. 45 (6. 92) 11. 11 (6. 39) Total 127 81. 0 82. 5 72. 8 83. 64 (7. 97) 10. 55 (6. 64) Note. ADL = activities of daily living; PSA = psychosocial activity; CB = combination. emale (79%) and widowed (69%) with a mean age of 83 (SD 7. 44). Participants had a mean score of 10 (SD 6. 34) on the MMSE, indicating moderate to severe cognitive impairment. Table 4 displays the means and standard deviations for the DBS overall and the four subscales across the five time periods for the five groups. No significant differences emerged for the interventi on-by-time interaction for any of the dependent variables. Thus, the results failed to support the hypothesis that the interventions would decrease DB across time in treatment groups as compared to control groups (statistical analysis tables on Website at: http://sonweb. nc. edu/nursing-research-editor). However, the main effect of state was significant in three analyses. Arkansas recorded significantly more behaviors than Maryland did for the dependent variables of physically nonaggressive (p . 001), vocally agitated (p . 001), and overall DBS (p . 002). Further, the main effect of time was significant for overall DBS (p . 002) and the four subscales of physically aggressive (p . 001), physically nonaggressive (p . 027), vocally aggressive (p . 021), and vocally agitated behaviors (p . 008). The significance resulted from increased DB after the PNA had left the home (generally from intervention or postintervention to first follow-up). For the videotape analysis, the hypothesis stated that treatment groups, compared with control groups, would display more indicators of positive affect and fewer indicators of negative affect following behavioral interventions. In general, neither the positive nor the negative affect scores were particularly high, indicating that this sample had relatively flat affect. Results from the analysis of covariance tests supported increased positive affect but not decreased negative affect. Compared to the control groups, the treatment groups had significantly more positive facial expressions (p . 001) and positive body posture/movements (p . 001), but not more positive verbal displays on the ODAS. The treatment groups displayed significantly more contentment (p . 037) and interest (p . 028) than the control groups did on the AARS. For the negative affects on the AARS, the treatment groups had a shorter duration of sad behaviors (p . 007) than the control groups did. Comparison of VAS scales likewise showed that the treatment groups displayed more positive affect (p . 012). Discussion In contrast to other studies (e. . , Hoeffer et al. , 1997; Kim Buschmann. , 1999; Whall et al. , 1997), this study found no treatment effect on DB. The interventions were a synthesis of approaches believed to globally address â€Å"triggers† of DB and meet psychosocial needs (Boettcher, 1983). They did not address the specific factors that might have been triggering the particular behavior (Algase et al. , 1996). Such triggers include under/over stimulation, unfamiliar or impersonal caregivers, and particular individual unmet psychosocial needs. For example, aggression during bathing could stem from physical discomfort or rough handling (Whall et al. 1997). Interventions much more individually designed require development. Increasing DB across all groups was reflected in the DBS scores at 1-month follow-up. Two factors may explain this increase. First, the PNA had warned participants that they would be leaving. Second, the ADL and CB participants no longer received care from the familiar PNA, and PSA, CB, and placebo participants no longer had a daily activity or visit. The increased stress and time constraints for NHNA as they resumed caregiving of the ADL and CB participants may explain the heightened DB in the control groups. Such changes may trigger increased behavioral symptoms in persons with dementia (Hall, Gerdner, Zwygart-Stauffacher, Buckwalter, 1995). Two measurement issues may have affected outcomes. First, observers view behaviors differently (Whall et al. , 1997) and come to expect particular behaviors from certain residents (Hillman, Skoloda, Zander, Stricker, 1999). If the NHNA were accustomed to a participant’s DB pattern, such as persistent screaming, they may have overlooked decreases in that behavior. Initial training and retraining of raters occurred as needed; however, some Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 Effects of Behavioral Interventions 225 TABLE 4. Weighted Scores for Disruptive Behavior by Intervention Group and Time Period No Intervention (n = 19) Mean (SD) 408. 71 (427. 24) 303. 69 (408. 44) 281. 97 (410. 85) 418. 31 (630. 58) 292. 85 (405. 15) 114. 66 (202. 89) 90. 85 (182. 70) 77. 98 (173. 15) 130. 92 (257. 12) 128. 20 (195. 67) 191. 97 (157. 75) 117. 11 (112. 30) 118. 23 (137. 08) 154. 46 (225. 05) 100. 45 (153. 30) 55. 16 (74. 70) 42. 89 (54. 54) 33. 26 (47. 06) 64. 72 (77. 89) 28. 09 (37. 02) (continues) DB Category Time Period DBS total Baseline ADL (n = 28) Mean (SD) 172. 51 (191. 47) 182. 45 (181. 3) 164. 56 (154. 95) 207. 22 (205. 58) 190. 70 (291. 06) 20. 67 (30. 52) 32. 59 (51. 29) 15. 02 (26. 10) 44. 18 (100. 62) 21. 45 (36. 47) 95. 50 (105. 28) 87. 58 (87. 58) 85. 04 (89. 60) 88. 81 (85. 69) 148. 75 (187. 28) 22. 85 (32. 10) 28. 37 (32. 50) 21. 15 (26. 54) 30. 72 (48. 95) 18. 28 (24. 55) PSA (n = 29) Mean (SD) 348. 02 (467. 50) 306. 81 (393. 03) 303. 24 (367. 54) 373. 17 (533. 05) 300. 20 (366. 42) 85. 87 (199. 01) 83. 94 (167. 53) 82. 82 (166. 93) 113. 49 (235. 71) 81. 30 (151. 85) 162. 41 (206. 65) 130. 82 (142. 72) 133. 92 (145. 97) 141. 47 (188. 99) 164. 92 (223. 63) 49. 64 (93. 15) 43. 80 (64. 6) 37. 90 (53. 43) 54. 47 (90. 33) 40. 26 (45. 26) CB (n = 22) Mean (SD) 287. 66 (373. 73) 300. 84 (379. 33) 286. 21 (365. 78) 374. 10 (510. 10) 312. 83 (433. 18) 68. 84 (126. 18) 67. 14 (137. 79) 61. 04 (127. 78) 92. 68 (205. 52) 60. 40 (131. 54) 136. 67 (189. 03) 124. 64 (164. 49) 125. 99 (157. 78) 159. 97 (202. 75) 146. 53 (201. 83) 34. 49 (55. 91) 40. 73 (52. 60) 31. 18 (33. 85) 36. 95 (42. 70) 32. 82 (51. 32) Placebo (n = 29) Mean (SD) 325. 96 (337. 14) 337. 60 (328. 94) 336. 80 (366. 55) 389. 92 (434. 43) 319. 15 (384. 59) 49. 26 (90. 24) 62. 10 (112. 71) 59. 67 (106. 37) 76. 79 (165. 45) 48. 25 (101. 4) 167. 01 (177. 80) 164. 62 (161. 48) 175. 36 (189. 80) 201. 68 (212. 06) 87. 67 (127. 38) 47. 20 (79. 70) 39. 55 (57. 74) 32. 69 (55. 77) 29 . 30 (47. 60) 30. 18 (52. 85) Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up Physically aggressive Baseline Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up Physically nonaggressive Baseline Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up Vocally aggressive Baseline Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up 226 Effects of Behavioral Interventions Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 TABLE 4. Weighted Scores for Disruptive Behavior by Intervention Group and Time Period (Continued) NoIntervention (n = 19) Mean (SD) 47. 65 (97. 22) 68. 32 (103. 13) 68. 01 (116. 62) 84. 50 (112. 48) 73. 07 (117. 12) DB Category Time Period Vocally agitated Baseline ADL (n = 28) Mean (SD) 33. 49 (84. 39) 33. 91 (62. 52) 43. 17 (72. 10) 43. 48 (64. 39) 50. 53 (117. 95) PSA (n = 29) Mean (SD) 46. 92 (98. 70) 52. 84 (96. 03) 52. 50 (90. 78) 68. 22 (98. 89) 48. 89 (92. 33) CB (n = 22) Mean (SD) 62. 49 (98. 97) 70. 43 (110. 85) 69. 08 (107. 29) 82. 14 (118. 97) 75. 80 (129. 67) Placebo (n = 29) Mean (SD) 50. 0 (92. 05) 48. 25 (81. 63) 48. 59 (72. 20) 63. 74 (95. 30) 54. 11 (80. 61) Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up Note. Scores were created by assigning each behavior with a severity weight prior to summing and then averaging across day and then week(s). DBS = disruptive behaviors; ADL = activities of daily living intervention; PSA = psychocial activity inte rvention; CB = combination of the two interventions. NHNA appeared to continue to consider participants’ behaviors, such as repetitive questioning, to be personality characteristics or attention-seeking efforts rather than DB. Thus, they may have under-reported behaviors. Further, staff may prefer withdrawn behaviors, such as isolating self and muteness (Camberg et al. , 1999), and view them as nonproblematic. Second, categorizing a behavior as disruptive without understanding its meaning to the person with dementia may be conceptually flawed. For example, screaming may express pain or self-stimulation. Two design features may explain differences between the findings of this study and others. First, this study had both placebo and no intervention control conditions. Just a few other studies randomized subjects to treatment or control groups or included two control groups (e. g. , Camberg et al. , 1999). In most studies, control conditions preceded or followed treatment conditions (e. g. , Clark, Lipe, Bilbrey, 1998). In both designs, subjects served as their own controls, which limits examination of simultaneous intra- and extra-personal events that might affect DB frequency. Second, many control groups came from separate units or different nursing homes (e. g. , Matteson et al. , 1997), which makes it difficult to control for differences in environment, staff relationships, and personalities. This study occurred at seven sites in two different geographical areas, but at each site, the randomization of female participants distributed the groups across all nursing units to control for environmental and staff characteristics. Acknowledged limitations include the following. First, in spite of the large overall sample, the group sizes were small (range 19–30) with the greatest loss in the no inter- vention group. Larger groups might have provided more definitive findings on the relationship between behavioral interventions and DB frequency as Rovner et al. (1996) did (treatment group 42; control group 39). Second, NHNA served as data collectors because using independent observers would have been cost-prohibitive. These results suggest that future intervention research should consider the individual characteristics of the person with dementia (Maslow, 1996) and the triggers of the behavior (Algase et al. , 1996). Studies that have individualized interventions have demonstrated decreased DB (Gerdner, 2000; Hoeffer et al. , 1997). Researchers need to continue to refine methods for identifying what works for whom (Forbes, 1998) to minimize the prevalent trial-anderror approach to DB management.